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y 


1 


• 


OF  THE    ^X^OI^L<D 


EDITED    BY   ARCHIBALD    WILLIAMS 


ENGINEERING     WONDERS 
OF    THE     WORLD 


VOLUME   in. 


ENGINEERING  WONDERS 
OF  THE   WORLD 


EDITED    BY 

ARCHIBALD    WILLIAMS 


VOLUME    III. 

With   424   Illustrations,   Maps,  and   Diagrams 


THOMAS   NELSON    AND   SONS 

London,   Edinburgh,   Dublin,  and  New   York 


/r 

W 
^■3 


CONTENTS 

OF    THE    THIRD    VOLUME 


MECHANICAL   FLIGHT  AND   AERIAL   NAVIGATION 

THE  THEORY  AND   PRINCIPLES   OF  THE  AEROPLANE 

FLYING   MACHINES   OF  TO-DAY 

AERONAUTICAL  ENGINES 

THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   AEROPLANES   AND   AERIAL  PROPELLERS 

DIRIGIBLE   BALLOONS 

HARBOUR   CONSTRUCTION 

THE   TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY.     By  T.  Fletcher  Fullard,  M.A. 

THE  WATER   SUPPLY   OF   NEW   YORK   CITY.     By  John  George  Leigh  . 

THE   COLORADO   RIVER  CLOSURE       ...... 

SOME   EXTRAORDINARY   SHIPBUILDING   FEATS.     By  Albert  G.  Hood 

THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANSCONTINENTAL 
ROAD.       By  G.  L.  Fowler     ....... 


/    THE  GREAT  TUNNELS   THROUGH  THE   ALPS         .... 
TRANSPORTATION   CANALS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.      By  L  M.  Peacock 
GREAT   BRITISH    DAMS   AND   AQUEDUCTS.      By  the  Editor 
HOW   LONDON   GETS   ITS  WATER.      By  the  Editor  .... 
THE  WONDERFUL  DRAINAGE   SYSTEM   OF  LONDON.      By  the  Editor 
THE  ELECTRIC  POWER  STATIONS  OF  LONDON.     By  E.  Lancaster  Burne,  A.M.Tnst.C.E 
THE   GREAT   IRRIGATION   WORKS   OF   INDIA.      By  an  Indian  Irrigation  Enoinkkr 


RAIL- 


1 

5 
15 
29 
39 
45 
65 
81 
97 
113 
122 

129 
148 
163 
177 
193 
209 
226 
232 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


BUILDING   THE   STATUE   OF   LIBERTY  ..... 

REMARKABLE    MACHINERY    USED     IN    THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    IRON 
STEEL.      By  Feed.  G.  Smith  ...... 

THE   KINLOCHLEVEN   WORKS   OF  THE   BRITISH   ALUMINIUM   COMPANY 

THE  ARCH   BRIDGES   OF   NIAGARA  FALLS  .... 

AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING 

TWO   REMARKABLE   ALPINE   MOUNTAIN   RAILWAYS     . 

GREAT   UNDERPINNING   ACHIEVEMENTS.      By  W.  T.  Perkins    . 

THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  RACING   MOTOR   CAR 

ARTESIAN   WELLS,    AND   HOW   THEY   ARE   BORED 

THE   BERGEN-KRISTIANIA   RAILWAY 

MODERN   CABLES   AND   CABLE   LAYING       ..... 

MODERN   DESTRUCTORS 

THE   COOLGARDIE   AQUEDUCT  ....... 


AND 


250 

257 
272 
278 
288 
301 
312 
321 
335 
347 
357 
377 
379 


•j^i^-- 


LIST    OF     COLOURED     PLATES 

IN    THIS    VOLUME 


THE   FIRST   CROSS-CHANNEL   FLIGHT  .....        To  face  Title-page. 

HARBOUR   CONSTRUCTION— LOWERING   A   HUGE   CONCRETE   BLOCK  To  face  page  65 

RAILROADMEN   REPELLING   AN    ATTACK   BY  INDIANS  .  .  .  .129 

THE  TOWER   BRIDGE 193 

A  BESSEMER   CONVERTER  .........       257 

A  MOTOR   RACE  ON  THE  BROOKLANDS  TRACK 321 


THE    FIRST    CROSS-CHANNEL    FLIGHT. 


^ 


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fjmio^ 


MECHANICAL    FLIGHT   AND   AERIAL 

NAVIGATION. 


INTRODUCTION. 


AS  the  beginning  of  last  century  witnessed  the  development  of  steam  locomotion  by 
/-\  land  and  sea,  and  its  last  decade  the  rise  of  the  gas-driven  automobile,  so  are  the 
first  years  of  the  twentieth  century  witnessing  the  growth  of  a  means  of  transit 
which  holds  out  greater  possibilities  than  any  of  its  predecessors.  There  is  no  need  to 
review  the  many  abortive  strivings  of  man  to  emulate  the  way  of  a  bird  in  the  air — 
attempts  which  were  doomed  to  failure  because  they  ran  far  ahead  of  the  mechanical 
science  of  the  time.  In  human  progress  there  has  been,  and  always  must  be,  an  ordered 
sequence.  The  locomotive  was  an  impossibility  while  tools  were  crude  and  the  means  of 
making  rails  in  bulk  not  yet  available.  The  growth  of  the  petroleum  industry,  the  in- 
vention of  the'  pneumatic  tyre  and  of  the  internal  combustion  engine,  and  the  existence 
of  good  roads,  prepared  the  way  for  the  motor  car.  And  now  we  seem  to  have  reached 
a  period  when,  thanks  to  mechanical  skill  and  scientific  knowledge,  the  solution  of  the 
problems  of  aerial  navigation  cannot  be  delayed  much  longer.  Tliough  critics  may  scoff, 
facts  are  facts  ;  and  among  the  facts  with  which  they  have  to  reckon  are  that  men  have 
travelled  hundreds  of  miles  in  dirigible  balloons,  and  that  men  have  flown  on  self-lifting 
machines  for  long  distances  at  high  speeds. 

Success  seems  to  have  come  quite  suddenly.  In  1852,  Henry  Giffard  devised  an  air- 
ship that  propelled  itself  at  a  low  velocity  ;  in  1884,  Renard  and  Krebs  produced  one 
that  proved  considerably  more  successful ;  in  1900,  Count  Zeppelin  first  moved  a  dirigible 
with  the  aid  of  a  petrol  engine  ;  in  1902,  Santos  Dumont  won  the  Deut^ch  Prize  with 
a  short  flight  round  the  Eiffel  Tower.  These  achievements  sum  up  the  progress  made 
till  seven  years  ago.  To-day  dirigible  balloons  are  numerous  ;  flying  macliines  that  can 
fly  are  to  be  counted  by  the  score,  and  their  number  increases  every  week. 

VOL.  III. 


5  ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

We  must  not  forget,  however,  that  the  feats  recently  accomplished  are  the  outcome 
of  a  great  amount  of  experiment  in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  open  air.  There  has  been 
little  of  what  may  be  called  accidental  discovery  in  the  story  of  the  aeroplane.  Slowly 
and  systematically,  with  the  aid  of  a  multitude  of  models,  the  laws  of  the  air  have  been 
explored,  the  problems  of  maintaining  stability  partly  solved.  If  progress  has  been,  on 
the  whole,  much  slower  than  in  the  case  of  the  steam  locomotive,  the  steamship,  and  the 
electric  and  petrol-driven  vehicle,  it  is  due  mainly  to  the  characteristic  difficulties  of 
aerial  navigation,  the  main  one  being  that  the  failure  of  any  man-carrying  apparatus  is 
attended  by  the  most  serious  consequences,  financial  and  physical.  This  meant  a 
cautious  advance  into  the  fascinating  field  of  aeronautics.  A  lot  of  work  was  done 
without  achieving  results  such  as  would  appeal  to  the  popular  imagination.  Experi- 
menters were  regarded  as  fools,  bent  on  breaking  their  necks.  Arguments  were  mar- 
shalled to  show  that  man  was  not  intended  to  fly,  and  that  therefore  he  should  not 
endeavour  to  do  so.  It  might  have  been  maintained  with  equal  fairness  that  man  was 
not  designed  to  travel  on  land  at  a  hundred  miles  an  hour,  or  on  the  sea  at  almost  half 
that  speed.  The  prejudice  which  overlooked  these  counter-arguments  was  based  in  no 
small  degree  upon  an  ignorance  about  or  misconception  of  the  physical  qualities  of  the 
atmosphere.  Though  at  rest,  the  air  seems  to  have  no  substance  ;  the  hurricane — air 
moving  at  high  velocity — makes  playthings  of  solid  structures.  It  shows  a  curious 
anomaly  of  thought  that,  while  the  dirigible  balloon  was  regarded  as  foredoomed  to 
failure  as  being  unable  to  overcome  air  resistance,  the  flying  machine  should  have  been 
derided  on  the  grounds  that  mere  air  would  not  serve  for  its  support.  The  fundamental 
fact  that  air  will  give  support  to  any  mass  if  that  mass  be  provided  with  suitable  surfaces 
and  be  propelled  at  a  sufficiently  high  speed  is  now,  however,  more  generally  recognized. 

Though  veritable  engineering  wonders,  the  airship  and  the  flying  machine  are  still  in 
their  infancy,  so  young  that  we  cannot  yet  see  clearly  what  form  they  are  likely  to  take 
as  they  develop.  Will  the  final  victory  rest  with  the  dirigible  balloon  or  with  the  heavier- 
than-air  self-lifting  and  self-supporting  machine  ?  Or  will  there  be  uses  found  for  both 
types  of  air  craft  ?      It  is  impossible  to  say. 

The  attitude  which  scouts  the  idea  of  aviation  becoming  more  than  a  sport  for  the 
wealthy  few  seems  hardly  worthy  of  serious  consideration.  The  advantages  of  being  able 
to  travel  through  the  air,  upborne  by  a  medium  which  requires  not  a  farthing's-worth  of 
expenditure  in  repairs,  and  which  is  practically  illimitable,  are  too  obvious  to  need  setting 
forth.  The  motor  car  has  come  into  general  use  largely  because  of  its  capacity  to  save 
time  in  "  cross-country  "  journeys,  through  districts  not  served  by  the  railway.  But 
even  the  car  has  to  keep  to  the  beaten  track  ;  to  cross  a  river  at  one  or  other  of  a  few 
points — often  many  miles  apart — at  which  bridges  have  been  built ;  to  traverse  mountain 
ranges  where  the  engineers  have  made  the  roads.  Long  detours  are,  in  many  circum- 
stances, unavoidable.  The  aeroplane  and  "  dirigible  "  know  no  such  limitations.  Given 
the  capacity  to  keep  moving  in  the  direction  desired,  there  will  be  nothing  to  hinder 
them  getting  from  any  one  place  to  any  other. 

What  effects  the  new  locomotion  will  have  on  society  it  is  indeed  difficult  to  foresee. 
Pessimists,  directing  their  attention  mainly  to  the  combative  instincts  of  mankind,  croak 


INTRODUCTION. 

of  aerial  invasion  and  warfare  in  the  clouds.  The  military  side  of  aerial  navigation  has 
been,  we  venture  to  think,  too  widely  emphasized.  The  locomotive  has  played  a  most 
important  part  in  modern  warfare,  yet  its  mission  has  been  mainly  peaceful.  Similarly, 
though  the  airship,  like  the  submarine  boat  in  another  element,  will  be  employed  in 
war  time  on  account  of  the  moral  effect  produced  by  its  possible  presence,  it  will  justify 
itself  far  more  full}'  as  a  means  of  maintaining  communication  in  many  parti  of  the  world 
whither  roads  and  railway  have  not  yet  penetrated.  Consider  what  an  aerial  postal  service 
would  mean  to  people  living  on  the  outskirts  of  civilization,  in  districts  where  pioneers  are 
at  present  painfully  feeling  their  way. 

In  the  following  chapters  we  are  concerned,  not  with  questions  of  tin-  miui.-,  hui  with 
the  past  and  present  progress  of  aeronautics.  We  shall  review  the  principles  and  prob- 
lems of  mechanical  flight,  and  give  attention  to  the  most  successful  aeroplanes  of  to-day. 
The  aeronautical  engine,  upon  the  development  of  which  has  depended  so  largely  that  of 
human  flight,  is  treated  in  a  separate  article.  The  second  main  section  is  devoted  to  the 
airship  or  dirigible  balloon. 

Tilings  are  moving  so  fast,  metaphorically  as  well  as  literally,  in  the  field  of  aeronautics 
that  we  cannot  hope  to  keep  here  quite  abreast  of  the  latest  developments.  Even  while 
these  articles  pass  through  the  press  fresh  triumphs  will  doubtless  be  won.  The  letter- 
press and  illustrations  will,  however,  have  a  value,  even  where  they  do  not  refer  to 
principles  rather  than  applications,  as  embodying  a  record  of  the  early  chapters  in  the 
history  of  the  most  fascinating,  as  it  is  the  most  recent,  of  engineering  wonders. 


A   WRIGHT   BIPLANE   IN   FLiaHT. 


{Photo,  Illustrations  Bureau.) 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRINCIPLES 
OF   THE   AEROPLANE. 


THE  physical  laws  governing  the  suc- 
cessful operation  of  an  aeroplane  ai'e 
at  the  present  time  still  being  ex- 
plored. Much  valuable  research  work  has 
been  done  by  Lilienthal,  Chanute,  Maxim, 
Phillips,  Lanchester,  Langley,  the  Wrights, 
and  others  ;  and  conclusions,  capable  of  ex- 
perimental proof,  have  been  arrived  at,  so 
that  human  flight  has  moved  from  the  posi- 
tion of  mere  aspiration  into  the  region  of 
accomplished  fact.  A  great  deal  remains  to 
be  done,  however,  before  man  will  rival  the 
birds  in  this  latest  form  of  locomotion. 

The  scientific  literature  dealing  with  aero- 
statics is  as  yet  comparatively  scanty,  and  of 
a  nature  which  may  well  scare  the  unscientific 
reader.  It  is  our  desire  to  avoid  here  tiresome 
technicalities,  formulae,  and  equations,  and 
to  present,  in  as  simple  a  form  as  possible, 
the  physical  facts  and  problems  with  which 
experimenters  have  to  deal. 

Most  of  us  have  handled  the  toy  kite,  a 
very  simple  apparatus  which  is  subservient  to 
essentially  the  same  laws  as  is  the  aeroplane. 


The  Kite. 


When  a  kite  is  launched  in  a  wind  sufficiently 
strong  to  lift  it  at  all,  it  speedily  rises  to  a  cer- 
tain elevation,  at  which  it  re- 
mains so  long  as  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  does  not  change.  The  steadiness 
of  the  kite  implies  an  equilibrium  of  the 
forces  acting  upon  it.  Tliese  forces,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  are  :  G,  gravity,  which  remains  prac- 
tically unaltered  under  all  conditions ;  W, 
the  pressure  of  wind,  acting  perpendicularly 
to  the  oblique  surface  of  the  kite  ;  and  P, 
the  pull  of  the  string. 

The  force  W  may  be  resolved  into  two 
other  forces.  One  of  these,  known  as  drift, 
tends  to  move  the  kite  horizontally  in  the 
direction  of  the  wind  ;  the  other,  called  lift, 
to  raise  the  kite  vertically  in  opposition  to 
gravity.  In  practice,  if  not  in  theory,  the 
drift  is  augmented  by  the  direct  resistance 
offered  by  edges,  excrescences,  and  roughnesses 
of  the  kite. 

If  the  wind  sinks,  the  kite  sinks  also,  in- 
creasing its  angle  with  the  horizontal.  This 
causes  it  to  capture  and  force  downwards  more 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


and  more  air  until  a  state  of  equilibrium  is 
again  attained.  We  must  observe,  however, 
that  this  increase  of  angle  means  also  a  great 
increase  in  drift  proportionately  to  lift.  If 
the  descent  of  the  kite  had  been  caused,  not 
by  decrease  in  wind  velocity,  but  by  the  addi- 
tion of  weight  to  the  kite,  the  increase  in  the 
pull  on  the  string  would  have  been  very 
noticeable. 

W 


Fig.  1. 


-DIAGRAM    TO    SHOW    THE    FORCES  ACTING 
ON    A    KITE. 


It  is  the  aim  of  the  kite-maker  as  well  as 
of  the  aeroplane  builder  to  design  surfaces 
which  shall  use  the  wind  pressure  most  effi- 
ciently— that  is,  extract  a  maximum  of  lifting 
force,  and  be  subject  to  a  minimum  of  drift. 

If  the  string  of  a  kite  breaks,  the  equilibrium 
of  forces  is  destroyed  ;  drift  and  gravity  take 
command,  and  the  kite  either  tumbles  or  glides 
to  earth  backwards.  If  it  were  possible  to 
attach  to  the  kite  at  the  moment  of  rupture 
a  weightless  engine  and  propeller,  exerting  a 
horizontal  windward  push  equal  to  the  drift, 
the  kite  would  remain  stationary. 

Again,  were  the  wind  to  drop  suddenly,  and 
the  engine  to  give  the  kite  a  forward  velocity 
equal  to  that  of  the  wind,  the  kite  would  move 
forward — assuming  that  it  were  able  to  main- 
tain its  stability — and  be  a  true  aeroplane  or 
self  -  supporting  heavier  -  than  -  air  apparatus. 
Under  usual  conditions  a  kite  is  not  strictly 
self-supporting,  in  that  it  depends  on  the  resist- 
ance of  a  string  anchored  to  a  fixed  point. 

Lilienthal,  the  great  German  experimenter, 


Octave   Chanute,    the    brothers   Wright,    and 

other    seekers    after    aerostatical    knowledge, 

made     use     of     man  -  bea,rinar        _.. . 
..,.,„.,         .  Gliders. 

gilders,  either  free  or  an- 
chored, of  large  area,  as  well  as  of  laboratory 
tests  on  surfaces  of  various  forms,  from  which 
was  derived  the  preliminary  knowledge  neces- 
sary to  the  construction  of  mechanical  self- 
propelled  and  self-sustaining  machines.  With- 
out going  into  wearisome  details,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  shape  and  the  arrangement  of 
surfaces  to  give  the  greatest  lifting  power  and 
stability  were  the  chief  objects  of  their  search. 

It  was  proved  conclusively  that  {a)  a  true 
plane  had  not,  area  for  area,  so  great  a  sustain- 
ing power  as  a  slightly  curved  surface,  convex 
on    the    upper    side.     Horatio 
Phillips,      and      subsequently       Shape  of 
Maxim,  demonstrated  by  elabo-       surfaces 
rate  tests  that  (b)  an  aeroplane 
(we  here  apply  the  term  to  a  sustaining  sur- 
face, not  to  a  machine)  with  the  upper  surface 
more   curved   than   the   lower,    and   inclining 
downwards  in  front  so  as  to  give  a  "  negative 
entering  angle  "  (see  Fig.  2),  was  most  efficient. 


^ 


Fig.    2. — SECTION    OF    A    DECK    WHICH    GIVES    GOOD 

LIFTING    POWER. 

The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Tests  showed  that  (c)  depth  fore  and  aft  was 
not  so  important  as  length  of  transverse  enter- 
ing edge  ;  that,  in  fact,  a  number  of  narrow 
aeroplanes,  arranged  one  over  the  other,  Vene- 
tian blind  fashion,  were  much  more  effective 
than  a  single  aeroplane  of  equal  length  and  of 
a  breadth  totalling  that  of  the  narrow  aero- 
planes. It  has  been  established  that  (d)  in 
the  case  of  well-made  aeroplanes  the  lift  in- 
creases, within  certain  limits,  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  angle  of  inclination  or  incidence  : 
thus,  a  plane  making  an  angle  of  10°  with  the 
horizontal  has  twice  the  lift  of  one  inclined 
at  5°  to  the  horizontal.     Also  that  (e)  the  drift 


THEORY    AND    PRINCIPLES    OF    THE    AEROPLANE. 


varies,  within  certain  limits,  relatively  to  the 
lift  with  the  angle  of  inclination  :  thus,  an 
aeroplane  set  at  an  angle  of  1  in  12  (that  is, 
having  the  forward  edge  1  inch  higher  than  the 
rear  edge  for  every  foot  of  width)  develops 
twelve  times  as  much  lift  as  drift.  Also  that  (/) 
the  lift  increases  as  the  square  of  the  velocity 
of  motion  relatively  to  the  air  :  therefore  the 


Camber 


Andle  oP 
Trail 


EHtry 


Fig  3. — DIAGRAM  TO  EXPLAIN  TERMS 
INCIDENCE,"  "  ANGLE  OF  ENTRY," 
ETC 


ANGLE    OF 
CAMBER," 


Air  Action. 


higher  the  speed,  the  smaller  the  angle  of  the 
plane  needed  to  sustain  a  given  Aveight,  and 
the  greater  the  lifting  effect  in  proportion  to 
the  power  employed.  This  fact  is  due  to  the 
inertia  of  the  air,  and  has  its  analogy  in  the 
fact  that  a  skater  travelling  fast  will  be  sup- 
ported by  ice  that  would  not  bear  him  at  rest. 
The  cause  of  the  great  lifting  power  of  a 
curved  aeroplane  with  a  downward-pointing 
front  edge  is  not  yet  clearly  understood. 
Phillips  advanced  the  theory 
that  the  upward  push  given 
to  the  air  by  the  front  edge  creates  a  partial 
vacuum  over  the  upper  rear  portion  of  the 
aeroplane.  Maxim,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
recorded  his  opinion  that  the  air  follows  the 
upper  curve  and  joins  that  passing  along  the 
underneath  surface  at  the  trailing  edge,  giving 
a  resultant  upward  push.  Whatever  the  cor- 
rect explanation  may  be,  the  curved  section 
is  used  generally,  the  ribs  in  some  cases  being 
tapered  and  covered  on  both  sides,  so  as  to 
make  the  curvature  more  pronounced  on  the 
top  than  on  the  bottom  ;  in  others,  covered 
on  the  lower  side  only.  There  seems  to  be 
a  lack  of  standardization  in  this  respect  at 
present. 


As  the  lifting  power  of  a  flying  machine  in- 
creases, other  things  being  equal,  with  its  bear- 
ing surfaces,  and  is  augmented  by  increasing  the 
length  of  forward  edge  of  these 

surfaces,  as  wide  a  spread  as    D»sPf  ^^io"  <>< 
.,  ,     .  ,  .  Planes. 

possible  IS,  in  this  respect,  a 

desideratum.  The  spread  must,  however,  be 
limited  to  convenient  dimensions.  Hence  one 
section  of  experimenters  have  adopted  the 
biplane,  with  two  "  decks  "  set  one  above  the 
other  at  a  distance  apart  at  least  equal  to 
the  width  of  the  decks,  and  a  few  have  tried 
the  triplane  and  multiplane.  Bleriot,  Latham, 
and  others  have  chosen  the  alternative  of  the 
monoplane,  having  a  single  deck  subdivided 
into  two  wings,  one  on  each  side  of  a  central 
"  body."  From  the  constructional  point  of 
view  the  biplane  has  the  advantage  of  admit- 
ting a  girder-like  form  of  cross  bracing  between 
the  two  decks,  and  enabling  the  propeller  or 
propellers  to  be  mounted  conveniently  behind 
the  decks,  where,  by  virtue  of  acting  on  air 
already  disturbed,  they  prove  more  efficient 
than  the  monoplane's  tractor  screw,  which 
bites  air  previously  undisturbed,  and  drives 
it  back  on  to  the  body  it  is  moving.  Yet  the 
performances  of  the  monoplane  have  been 
so  satisfactory  as  regards  speed  that  one  is 
driven  to  the  conclusion  that  as  yet  it  is  too 
early  to  dogmatize  on  the  respective  merits 
of  the  two  types. 

We  may  digress  here  for  a  moment  to  intro- 
duce and  explain  the  term  "  aspect  ratio," 
now  commonly  used  in  describing  the  shape 
of  a  deck.  An  aspect  ratio  of 
6  to  1,  for  example,  implies 
that  the  greatest  length  from  end  to  end  is 
six  times  the  greatest  depth  from  the  front 
to  the  rear  edge. 

From  what  has  been  said  already,  it  will  be 
deduced  that  the  ability  of  a  flj'ing  machine 
to  keep  in  the  air  depends  on  (1)  the  design  of 
the  supporting  surfaces  ;  (2)  the  area  of  the 
supporting  surfaces  ;  (3)  the  inclination  of 
the    supporting    surfaces ;    (4)   the    speed    of 


Aspect  Ratio. 


8 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


travel,  which    in   turn    is    dependent  on  the 

motive    force.     When  travelling  horizontally 

the  machine  is  practically  con- 

The  Design     gtantly  climbing  a  slope  equal 

**»«     ..to  that  of  the  natural  gliding 
Machine.  °        , 

angle  of  descent  which  it 
takes  to  earth  when  the  engines  are  stopped. 
So  that  in  effect  the  power  required  to  sustain 
it  must  be  equivalent  to  the  extra  power 
(above  that  developed  on  the  level)  needed 
to  drive  a  motor  car  of  equal  weight  at  an 


Horizontal    Path 


Fig.  4. 

An  aeroplane  travelling  horizontally  has,  weight  for  weight, 
to  exert  as  much  force  to  support  itself  as  is  required  to 
propel  a  motor  ear  up  an  incline  having  a  gradient  equal  to 
the  gliding  angle  of  the  aeroplane. 

equal  speed  up  an  incline  equal  to  the  gliding 
angle  of  the  aeroplane,  and,  in  addition,  to 
overcome  the  air  resistance  and  skin  friction 
of  all  parts  of  the  machine.  The  first  factor, 
the  aerodynamic  resistance,  is  decreased  rela- 
tively to  the  lift  by  higher  speed,  since,  as 
we  have  seen  already,  the  lift  increases  with 
the  speed  ;  the  second  factor,  head  resistance, 
increases  in  the  same  ratio,  as  the  square  of  the 
velocity.  Hence  one  factor  tends  to  counter- 
balance the  other.  It  follows  from  this  that 
for  any  one  machine  there  is  a  certain  speed 
at  which  it  will  support  itself  and  travel  from 
one  point  to  another  most  economically — that 
is,  with  the  least  expenditure  of  force.  To 
improve  the  speed  without  increasing  the 
power  or  altering  the  weight,  the  head  resist- 
ance must  be  diminished,  or  the  design  of  the 
decks  improved  and  the  inclination  reduced. 
Should  the  designer  elect  rather  to  decrease 
the  supporting  area  without  increasing  engine 


power,  he  would  be  compelled  to  increase  also 
the  inclination  of  the  decks — and  with  it  the 
"  drift  " — which  would  tend  to  diminish  speed 
— a  very  undesirable  alternative. 

An  aeroplane  must  travel  at  a  certain  speed 
to  support  itself  at  all.  To  enable  it  to  rise, 
the  power  must  be  increased.  Merely  to  point 
an  elevating  rudder  upwards  will  not  suffice, 
as  the  increase  of  inclination  will  increase  the 
"  drift  "  of  the  supporting  surfaces  and  slow 
the  machine.  At  the  great  meeting  at  Rheims 
the  struggles  of  competitors  to  reach  the 
highest  altitude — the  winner  rose  but  slightly 
more  than  500  feet — ^proved  the  difficulty  of 
increasing  the  steepness  of  ascent  over  and 
above  the  angle  at  which  the  machine  must 
take  to  maintain  a  horizontal  path. 

An  efficient  machine  has  a  gliding  angle 
of  about  1  in  8 ;  that  is,  when  influenced  by 
gravity  alone,  it  will  descend  one  foot  for 
every  8  feet  it  progresses. 

The  power  needed  to  propel  the  machine  on 
a  horizontal  course  is  that  required  to,  say, 
roll  a  ball  of  equal  weight  up  a  frictionless 
incline  of  1  in  8,  and  also  to  overcome  fric- 
tional  air  resistance.  To  maintain  stability 
a  speed  of  from  35  to  40  miles  an  hour  is 
required. 

Let   us   assume    that   the    machine   weighs 

500  lbs.  with  pilot,  and  that  it  has  to  travel 

at  40  miles  per  hour  to  sustain  itself.     Every 

second  500  lbs.  will  be  lifted 

Power  needed 

for  an 

Aeroplane. 

quire  about   7^    horse-power. 

In  order  to  rise,  at  least  one-fifth  more  power 
must  be  added,  making  9  horse-power  in  all. 
Owing  to  loss  of  power  in  transmission  and  to 
screw  inefiiciency,  a  further  50  per  cent,  more 
power  is  required,  and  to  overcome  air  fric- 
tion and  resistance  we  must  allow  a  further 
30  per  cent.  The  engine  for  a  500  lb.  load 
should  therefore  develop  some  16  horse-power, 
or  about  1  horse-power  for  every  31  lbs.  of 
weight. 


(in  effect)  |th  of  60  feet  =  11 
feet.     To  effect   this  will  re- 


THEORY    AND    PRINCIPLES    OF    THE    AEROPLANE.        9 


The  fact  that  some  flying  machines  give  a 
much  better  lift  per  horse-power  is  due  to  a 
naturally  better  (more  acute)  gliding  angle, 
to  good  design  as  regards  minimizing  fric- 
tional  resistances,  to  high  engine  and  propeller 
efficiency,  or  to  a  combination  of  all  three. 
A  Wright  machine,  weighing  950  lbs.,  is  pro- 
pelled at  40  miles  per  hour  by  a  24  horse- 
power engine,  which  works  out  at  over  40  lbs. 
carried  per  horse-power. 

THE    MAINTENANCE    OF    STABILITY. 

The  flying  machine,  as  at  present  consti- 
tuted, is  able  and  liable  to  topple  in  any  direc- 
tion. As  flight  necessitates  high  speed  and 
considerable  elevation  above  the  earth's  sur- 
face, the  maintenance  of  stability  is  literally 
of  vital  importance.  Even  under  favourable 
conditions  early  experimenters  found  it  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  counteract  the  tendency  of 
a  glider  or  power-driven  machine  to  execute 
unpremeditated  dives  and  somersaults.  The 
history  of  flight  is  punctuated  by  records  of 
more  or  less  disastrous  spills  resulting  directly 
from  the  failure  of  the  aviator  to  keep  the 
machine  in  such  a  position  that  the  centre  of 
air-pressure  should  lie  over  or  coincide  with 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  mass  in  motion. 

The  problem  of  balancing  an  aeroplane  is 
a  peculiar  one.  Hold  a  sheet  of  paper  hori- 
zontally and  let  it  fall.  It  darts  first  one  way 
and  then  another.  You  can  only  guess  at 
the  direction  which  it  will  take  finally  before 
alighting.  If  launched  horizontally,  it  be- 
haves in  a  most  erratic  manner.  Even  a  more 
scientifically  designed  paper  "  glider,"  instead 
of  following  a  steady  downward  course,  dips 
up  and  down,  as  if  influenced  by  a  horizontal 
rudder.  This  phenomenon  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  pressure  on  a  surface 


The  Centre 
of  Pressure. 


moving  obliquely  through  the 
air  varies  in  strength  at  differ- 
ent points  on  that  surface,  being  greater  at 
the  front  than  at  the  back  edge.  The  centre 
of  pressure — that  is,  the  point  at  which  the 


total  pressure  may  be  considered  to  act — is 
normally  situated,  in  the  case  of  a  curved 
"  deck,"  about  one-third  of  the  width  of  the 
deck  from  its  front  edge ;  or  the  pressure 
may  l)o  regarded  as  affecting  the  deck  on  a 
line  drawn  transversely  through  this  point. 

An  increase  of  speed  moves  the  centre  of 
pressure  nearer  to  the  front  edge  of  the  oblique 
surface  ;  a  decrease  causes  it  to  recede  to- 
wards the  rear  edge.  A  paper  glider,  as  it 
swoops  downwards,  is  tilted  up  in  front  be- 
cause, though  the  centre  of  gravity  remains 
unchanged,  the  centre  of  pressure  has  worked 
forwards,  and  the  air  gets  an  upward  leverage 
at  the  front.  The  tilt  gives  the  glider  extra 
lift,  but  also  slows  it  ;  the  speed  decreases, 
the  centre  of  pressure  recedes,  and  the  original 
angle  of  descent  is  resumed.  This  cycle  of 
variations  may  recur  many  times  in  the  course 
of  a  glide. 

To  keep  an  aeroplane  from  pitching  longi- 
tudinally, provision  must  be  made  whereby  the 
centre  of  pressure  may  be  kept  close  to  the 
centre  of  gravity   at   varying 

speeds.     All  biplanes  are  fitted      ^, 
^  ^  11-       Elevators. 

with  an  auxiliary  movable  hori- 
zontal surface  or  surfaces  in  front  of  the  main 
decks,  and  under  control  of  thf  pilot.  Move- 
ments of  the  elevator  vary  the  average  angle 
of  incidence  of  all  the  sustaining  surfaces. 
Thus,  if  the  aeroplane  is  gliding  downwards, 
and  the  pilot  wishes  to  take  a  horizontal 
course,  he  raises  the  front  edge  of  the  elevator. 
This  give«  the  elevator  a  greater  upward 
leverage,  and  increases  the  angle  of  incidence 
of  the  main  decks.  To  cause  a  descent,  the 
elovator  is  tilt«d  downwards,  and  the  general 
angle  of  incidence  decreased.  Gusts  of  winds 
coming  headways  on  are  counteracted  by  a 
proper  manipulation  of  the  elevator.  It 
should  be  understood,  however,  that  the 
elevator  has  but  little  effect  in  making  the 
machine  take  a  steady  upward  course.  For 
this  an  increase  in  the  motive  force  is  re- 
quired. 


THEORY    AND    PRINC1PLE8    OF    THE    AEROPLANE.       11 


The  Wrights  depend  entirely  on  the  front 
elevator  for  the  maintenance  of  fore  and  aft 
stability.  They  have  expressed  the  opinion 
that,  as  the  cyclist  must  learn  to  balance  his 
cycle,  so  the  aviator  must  learn  to  balance  his 
aeroplane.  At  first  the  task  is  not  easy,  but 
practice  brings  a  habit  of  doing  the  right  thing 
without  conscious  calculation. 

That  the  lesson  can  be  learnt  without  great 
difficulty — at  least  by  persons  naturally  recep- 
tive— has  been  proved  by  events.  Yet  there 
is  much  to  be  said  in  favour 
of  automatic  stability  systems, 


Automatic 
Stability. 


which  tend  to  relieve  the  pilot 
of  the  strain  entailed  by  constant  watchful- 
ness. In  fact,  it  is  hard  to  conceive  what  one 
may  style  the  successful  commercial  flying 
machine  of  the  future  as  a  contrivance  which 
will  be  kept  right  way  up  only  by  virtue  of 
the  pilot's  unceasing  vigilance. 

The  Voisin,  Far  man,  and  some  other  bi- 
planes carry  a  horizontal  immovable  tail  in 
the  rear  in  addition  to  a  front  elevator  ;   while 

_  ^  monoplanes  of  all  patterns  have 

Fixed  Tails.         .      .  .       .,  ,, 

a  horizontal  tail  as  well  as  a 

horizontal  rudder,  which,  in  the  case  of  these 
machines,  could  not  well  be  placed  ahead  of 
the  main  decks,  owing  to  the  position  of  the 
tractor  screw.  The  tail  checks  sudden  altera- 
tions of  angle,  and  generally  tends  to  keep  the 
aeroplane  level.  A  rear  horizontal  rudder  is, 
however,  not  so  efficient  as  the  front  elevator, 
as  it  has  little  effect  in  checking  the  speed  of 
the  aeroplane  when  the  latter  alights.  A  front 
elevator  is  turned  up  somewhat  abruptly  just 
before  the  machine  touches  ground,  and  di- 
minishes the  speed  while  flattening  the  angle 
of  descent,  so  that  a  well-handled  aeroplane 
alights  without  shock.  The  action  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  a  bird  throwing  its  head 
back  and  opposing  its  wings  almost  squarely 
to  the  air  just  as  it  reaches  earth.  The  mono- 
plane, with  its  rear  elevator,  which  has  little 
braking  effect,  is  apt  to  come  down  heavily 
and   damage   the   wheeled    carriage    and    the 


Rear 
Elevators. 


propeller.  Thanks,  however,  to  its  tail,  it 
has  good  longitudinal  stability  if  the  weight 
be  properly  distributed.  At 
one  time  it  was  thought  that 
its  stability  was  far  inferior 
to  that  of  the  biplane ;  but  M.  Bleriot,  after 
many  experiments,  succeeded  in  overcoming 
the  diving  propensities  of  this  type. 

Against  the  tail  it  may  be  urged  that  it 
decreases  speed.  The  American  biplane,  the 
June  Bug,  originally  carried  a  tail.  When 
this  was  removed  the  speed  was  greatly  in- 
creased. We  may  observe,  too,  that  the 
biplanes  with  double-decked  tails  are  not  a 
speedy  class.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mono- 
plane type  of  tail  does  not  appear  to  militate 
against  speed. 

Though  it  is  as  yet  early  to  dogmatize  on 
points  relating  to  aeroplane  design,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  the  tail  increases  longitudinal 
stability,  but  that  the  front  control  is  ex- 
tremely valuable.  The  tailless  biplane  is  more 
"  handy  "  and  easy  to  manoeuvre  ;  the  tailed 
machine  more  stable,  but  less  easily  swung 
about. 

To  counteract  sideways  tilting  several  sys- 
tems have  been  used.  The  first  was  to  turn 
the  two  halves  of  a  deck  upwards  to  form 
a  "  dihedral  angle "  at  the 
middle.  This  gave  stability, 
but  caused  a  rolling  from  side 
to  side.  The  straight -edged  deck  is  somewhat 
less  stable,  but  is  free  from  rolling.  Decks 
with  drooping  ends  have  been  used  by  Mr. 
Cody,  those  on  his  aeroplane  having  a  dip  of 
several  inches  towards  the  tips.  A  partridge 
when  gliding  droops  it«  wings,  but  keeps  re- 
markably steady,  so  that  possibly  the  tliird 
form  may  prove  to  be  the  most  suitable.  At 
present  the  straight  deck  is  in  vogue.  A  very 
slight  dihedral  angle  is  used  on  the  Antoinette 
monoplanes,  as  previously  by  Langley  on  his 
model  aerodrome,  and  by  Maxim  for  his  big 
steam-dfiven  machine. 


Lateral 
Stability. 


12 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Vertical 
Curtains. 


The  Voisin  biplanes  are  provided  with 
vertical  curtains  situated  between  the  main 
decks  and  the  upper  and  lower  planes  of  the 
tail.  Monoplanes  usually  have 
one  or  more  vertical  fins  at- 
tached to  the  framework  of 
the  rear  part  of  the  body.  These  devices 
belong  to  the  automatic  class,  and  may  be 
compared  to  the  fins  on  a  torpedo  or  the  deep 
keel  of  a  sailing  ship. 

Though  the  permanent  shape  of  deck  and 

the  employment  of  curtains  and  fins  may  help 

to  prevent  tilting,  they  cannot  correct  it  when 

it  occurs.     For  this  purpose  it 

uxi  lary       .^  necessary  to   use   auxiliary 

Devices.  _  -^ ,     ,  ,       ,     / 

planes  attached  to  the  decks 

or  tail,  or  to  alter  temporarily  the  shape  of 
the  decks  themselves — to  "  warp  "  them,  as 
it  is  now  termed.  The  Wrights  warp  both 
main  decks  by  means  of  a  device  which  will 
be  explained  on  a  later  page,  bending  down- 
wards the  end  of  the  deck  which  is  lowest  and 
thereby  increasing  the  lift  at  that  end.  To 
prevent  the  resulting  drag  slewing  the  aero- 
plane round,  the  warping  mechanism  is  linked 
up  with  the  rudder,  and  moves  it  simulta- 
neously to  the  side  away  from  the  warped 
end. 

The  wings  of  the  Bleriot  monoplane  are 
warped  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner.  The 
Farman  biplane  and  the  Antoinette  mono- 
plane have  "  ailerons,"  or  flaps,  attached  to 
the  rear  edges  of  the  main  decks.  (See  Figs. 
4  and  8,  pages  23  and  28.)  Cody  uses  a  front 
elevator,  the  two  halves  of  which  can  be 
moved  in  opposing  directions,  as  well  as  small 
balancing  planes  between  the  main  decks. 

On  the  whole,  the  problem  of  maintaining 
stability  has  been  solved  in  a  considerable 
degree.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the 
difficulties  of  balancing  a  well-designed  aero- 
plane are  soon  overcome  by  a  clever  learner. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the 
development  of  aviation  has  been  the  sudden 
rise  to  fame  of  aviators  after  but  a  few  weeks 


of  practice.  We  must  not  forget,  however, 
that  even  the  hardiest  pilot  will  not  venture 
forth  in  rough  weather  ;  that  the  aeroplane 
is  as  yet  a  fair  weather  machine,  which  cannot 
be  depended  upon  to  keep  steady  if  struck  by 
a  squall,  however  skilfully  handled. 

The    Wrights,    though    advocates    of    the 
"  pilot-balanced  "  machine,  have  applied  for 
a   patent   covering    a   mechanical    device    for 
maintaining  automatic  stabil- 
ity.    In  this  the  human  brain     ^^echanical 
1        1  1       .1  r       Stability. 

IS  replaced  by  the  pressure  of 

air  on  a  plane  as  regards  longitudinal,  and  by 
the  movements  of  a  pendulum  as  regards  lateral 
stability.  Compressed  air  is  substituted  for 
muscular  action.  The  plane  and  pendulum 
open  valves  which  admit  compressed  air  to 
an  engine  operating  the  elevator  and  the 
rudder  and  warping  mechanism.  The  appar- 
atus has  not,  so  far  as  is  known,  been  sub- 
jected to  any  actual  tests,  but  it  may  play 
a  part  in  the  future  of  aviation. 

The  gyroscope  has  been  used  successfully 
on  the  Whitehead  torpedo  to  maintain  direc- 
tion, and  on  small  vessels  to  prevent  rolling. 

Also,    the   Brennan    mono-rail 

The 


railway    carriage    is    balanced 


Gyroscope. 


entirely  by  means  of  a  g3^o- 
scope.  It  is  thought  that  the  same  mechanism 
might  be  of  use  for  stabilizing  an  aeroplane, 
if  arranged  so  as  not  to  cause  too  violent 
strains  in  the  machine.  A  combination  of 
gyroscope  and  pendulum  has  been  proposed, 
whereby  the  decks  or  auxiliary  planes  could 
be  warped  or  deflected  automatically  to  main- 
tain equilibrium. 

Another  solution  of  the  problem  hes  in  high 
speed.  The  faster  a  body  moves,  the  less 
easily  is  it  diverted  from  its  path  or  turned 
about    on    itself.     A    bicycle 

driven    at    twenty    miles    an       J'   .  ...^ 

•^  Stability. 

hour     requires     no     steering, 

whereas    only   an   expert   could   balance   the 
bicycle,  without  the  use  of  his  hands,  at  walk- 


THEORY    AND    PRINCIPLES    OF    THE    AEROPLANE.      13 


ing  pace.  Similarly,  an  aeroplane  moving  at 
a  hundred  miles  an  hour  would  be  practically 
unaffected  by  strong  gusts  of  wind,  and  not 
be  liable  to  tilt  either  longitudinally  or  trans- 
versely. Such  a  speed  would,  however,  imply 
the  use  of  small  lifting  surfaces,  which  in  turn 
would  make  landing  a  difficult  matter.     Pos- 


sibly invention  may  devise  some  method  of 
altering  the  area  of  the  decks  at  will  —  of 
reefing  them,  as  it  were,  during  flight,  and 
unreefing  when  the  time  comes  to  alight.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  the  aeroplane  of  to-day 
does  not  appear  to  lend  itself  to  any  such 
system  as  this. 


TUNING    UP    AN    ANTOINETTE    MONOPLANE    PREPARATORY    TO    A    PLIGHT. 
{Photo,  111  list  rations  Bureau.) 


S.    F.    CODY    CROSSING    THE    BASINGSTOKE    CANAL. 

He  is  holding  his  hands  over  his  head  to  show  the  stability  of  his  machine. 


{Plioto,  Topical.) 


THREE    VOISIN    MACHINE    BIPLANES    AT    THE    STARTING-LINE,    RHEIMS. 


(F/iolo,  lUuslrationa  Bureau.) 


FLYING   MACHINES   OF   TO-DAY. 

A  REVIEW  OF   SOME  OF   THE    MOST   SUCCESSFUL  TYPES,  WITH   DETAILED 
DESCRIPTIONS    OF   THEIR   CHIEF   FEATURES. 


FROM  the  theory  of  the  flying  machine 
we  may  now  turn  to  the  most  promi- 
nent examples  of  its  practical  applica- 
tion. Inasmuch  as  at  the  time  of  writing 
the  successful  heavier- than-air  machines  are 
of  one  or  other  of  two  types— the  biplanes  and 
monoplanes — we  shall  not  make  reference  here 
to  the  triplanes,  multiplanes,  helicopters,  and 
flapping  machines  which  are  still  in  the  purely 
experimental  stage. 

In  the  present  article  the  term  flying  ma- 
chine is  synonymous  with  aeroplane.  "  Aero- 
plane "  is  not  a  happy  term  in  itself,  because 
planes  seldom  form  part  of  a  flying  machine, 
whereas  the  curved  or  cambered  deck  is  always 
used,  at  least  for  the  main  sustaining  surfaces. 
However,  as  the  word  "aeroplane"  has  estab- 
lished itself,  and  conveys  a  distinct  impression 
of  a  certain  tjrpe  of  machine,  it  must  stand. 

The  dimensions  of  various  machines  given 
in  the  following  paragraphs  may  be  found  to 
differ  slightly  from  the  figures  given  in  other 
publications.  This  may  be  explained  by  the 
fact  that  minor  alterations  are  constantly  being 
made  by  the  designers,  and  that  several  ma- 


chines of  the  same  pattern  may  vary  among 
themselves  in  detail.  It  is  possible  that  be- 
fore these  words  appear  in  print  some  of  the 
aeroplanes  described  may  have  undergone 
considerable  modifications,  as  the  result  of 
experience  suggesting  improvement. 

THE    WRIGHT   >L\CHINE.' 

When  the  history  of  the  development  of 
the  heavier-than-air  machine  comes  to  be 
wTitten,  the  Wright  brothers  will  occupy  a 
position  in  it  analogous  to  that  of  George 
Stephenson  in  the  history  of  the  locomotive. 
As  Stephenson  first  produced  a  really  prac- 
ticable locomotive  capable  of  prolonged  effort 
and  high  speed,  so  can  the  Wrights  claim  to 
have  built  the  first  really  practicable  flying 
machine. 

The  story  of  the  Wrights'  struggle  to  master 
the    air    has    been   told   sufficiently   off*Mi    to 
render  unnecessary  here  any- 
thing more  than  a  brief  rSsumd.     "^P^"?!*?"  ^ 
^,  ,      .  with  Qhders. 

The    preliminary   experiments 

were  begun  in  189G,  and  continued  until 
1903.     During  this  period   were   built   many 


16 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


double-decked  "  gliders,"  modelled  on  the  lines 
laid  down  by  Lilienthal  and  Chanute  ;  the 
laws  of  balance  were  explored  ;  the  efficiency 
of  curves  with  regard  to  lift  and  drift  ex- 
amined ;  and  a  large  number  of  glides  were 
made,  the  longest  being  over  600  feet  long, 
and  lasting  26  seconds.  The  glider  used  for 
this  particular  flight  had  a  supporting  area  of 


machine  were  given  an  area  about  doable  that 
of  the  preceding  glider. 

The  best  performance  put  up  diring  the 
year  was  half  a  mile  in  just  under  a  minute 
at  a  speed  of  about  30  miles  per  hour.  The 
lift  obtained  approximated  to  60  lbs,  per 
horse-power  developed  by  the  engine. 

The  next  year  the  Wrights  shifted  the  scene 


COUNT   LAMBERT    ON    A    WRIGHT    AEROPLANE. 


(Photo,  Illwitrations  Bureau.) 


312  square   feet,   a   span  of    35  feet,   and   a 
weight  of  117  lbs. 

In  1903  the  brothers  considered  that  they 
had  collected  sufficient  data  to  justify  the 
application  of  a  petrol  motor  to  a  new  glider 
specially  built.  The  engine,  built  by  them- 
selves, had  four  cylinders  of  4~inch  bore  and 
stroke,  weighed  250  lbs.,  and  developed  12 
horse-power  at  1,000  revolutions  per  minute. 
To  support  the  extra  weight,  the  decks  of  this 

(1,408) 


An  Engine 
fitted. 


of  operations  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Chesapeake  Bay — where  the  prevailing  winds 
had  been  particularly  favour- 
able for  gliding  experiments — 
to  their  home  at  Dayton,  in 
Ohio,  and  proceeded  to  build  a  second  machine. 
With  this — driven  by  a  17  horse-power  engine 
— they  made  many  flights,  the  record  for  the 
year  being  rather  more  than  3  miles  in  5 
minutes    17  seconds,  at  a  speed  of  34  miles 


FLYING    MACHINES    OF    TO-DAY. 


17 


per  hour.  Tliey  also  had  the  satisfaction  of 
completing  an  aerial  circuit  for  the  first  time. 
Encouraged  by  their  success,  the  Wrights 
built,  in  1905,  the  now  famous  "White  Flier" 
— the  "  Rocket "  of  aviation.  This  machine 
had  a  deck  area  of  625  square  feet,  and 
mounted  a  24  horse-power  250-lb.  gasolene 
engine,  which  drove  two  large  wooden  pro- 
pellers, 6  feet  in  diameter,  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, by  means  of  chain  gearing.  The  weight 
of  the  machine  "  mounted  " — that  is,  with 
pilot  "  up  "—totalled  925  lbs. 

During  the  months  of  September  and  October 

the  "  White  Flier  "  made  some 

The  First      remarkable   journeys,    all    the 

Great  Human  ^    ^  ^    j-  .i      r     . 

r-i-   L.L  more  remarkable  trom  the  tact 

Fhghts. 

that  three  years  elapsed  before 
they  were  beaten  by  those  of  any  other  ma- 
chine.    The  following  is  the  record  : — 

Date.  Distance.  Time. 

September  2G,  1905 11^  miles 18  min.  9  sec. 

29,1905 12       , 19     „   55    „ 

October  3,  1905 15^     „     25     „      5   „ 

4,  1905 21"     „    33     „    17    „ 

5,1905 24i     „    38     „     3    „ 

Owing  to  the  privacy  with  which  the  flights 
were  conducted  and  to  the  silence  of  the  local 
press,  the  performances  were  generally  dis- 
credited in  France,  where  Captain  Ferber, 
Gabriel  Voisin,  and  M.  Ernest  Archdeacon 
had  for  some  years  been  following  up  the 
gliding  experiments  of  Lilienthal  and  Octave 
Chanute.  Sufficient  independent  testimony 
was  forthcoming,  however,  to  establish  as  a 
matter  beyond  doubt  that  the  Wright  aero- 
plane had  flown  with  a  passenger  for  a  con- 
siderable distance,  had  executed  flights  in 
any  direction  desired,  and  had  come  safely 
to  ground  at  high  and  low  speeds  ;  that,  in 
short,  there  was  no  reason  to  disbelieve  the 
statements  recorded  by  the  Wrights. 

During  1906  public  curiosity  compelled  the 
brothers  to  content  themselves  with  improv- 
ing the  smaller  details  of  a  machine  which 
they  considered  to  have  a  commercial  value. 
In  1907  they  made  several  flights,  and  opened 

(1.408) 


negotiations    with    several    Governments    for 

the    sale    of     their     invention,    and     in     the 

following  year  brought  their  Flier  to  France. 

After   some    preliminary    tun- 

ing-up  flights,  Wilbur  Wright        Record - 

1  •      1        '    p      w      •  breakinsf  in 
stayed  m  the  air  for  19  mmutes        r- 

•^  France. 

48j  seconds  on  September  5, 
1908.  On  the  21st,  he  broke  all  his  own 
records  handsomely  with  a  flight  lasting  1 
hour  31  minutes  25  J  seconds,  and  caused 
a  tremendous  increase  of  popular  interest  in 
aviation.  Two  months  later  he  travelled  62 
miles  in  1  hour  54  minutes  53|  seconds  ;  and 
on  the  last  day  of  the  year  won  the  Michelin 
Trophy  with  a  flight  which  lasted  2  hours 
20  minutes  23  J  seconds,  and  covered  a  dis- 
tance of  77 J  miles,  (This  was  the  officially 
measured  distance.  The  actual  distance  trav- 
elled was  considerably  greater.) 

These  really  astonishing  feats,  which  re- 
mained unbeaten  for  seven  months,*  resulted 
in  orders  for  Wright  aeroplanes  being  placed 
by  several  Governments  and  many  private 
individuals,  and  at  the  present  moment  more 
machines  of  this  type  exist  than  of  any  other. 
A  description  of  its  main  features  will  there- 
fore be  of  interest. 

The  decks  are  about  40  feet  long  and  6.| 
feet  deep  from  front  to  rear,  giving  a  total 
bearing  surface  of  about  530  square  feet  (in 
some  of  the  most  recent  ma- 
chines the  surface  has  been 
reduced  considerably).  The  framework  of 
each  deck  consists  of  two  parallel  main  cross 
members — one  running  along  the  front  edge, 
the  other  about  4  feet  3  inches  in  the  rear — 
and  connected  at  the  ends.  These  support 
arched  ribs,  15  inches  apart,  slightly  curved, 
and  composed  of  upper  and  lower  slats  sepa- 
rated by  blocks  and  approaching  nearer  to  one 
another  towards  the   back  edge.     They  pass 

*  On  August  7,  1909,  M.  Soraraer  llew  for  2  hours  27 
minutes  15  secomis  on  a  Farman  biplane,  to  be  in  turn 
beaten  by  Henry  Farman  (on  a  Farman  biplane)  on  August 
27,  with  a  tiight  lasting  3  hours  4  minutes  50}  seconds  (180 
kilometres  =  112  miles). 

2  VOL.  III. 


The  Machine. 


18 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


round  the  after  cross  member.  Above  and 
beneath  the  ribs  is  fastened  rubbered  cloth, 
to  form  a  double-surfaced  deck. 

The  two  decks  are  held  apart  by  a  number 
of  wooden  uprights  attached  to  the  cross  mem- 
bers of  the  decks.  The  three  rear  supports 
at  each  end  are  merely  hooked  on,  so  as  to 
allow  of  a  small  amount  of  movement.     The 


accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  1)  will  assist  to 

explain  its  action.     A  lever  (R)  on  the  pilot's 

right  hand  is  connected  by  a 

bar  (A)  to  the  rudder  gearing, 

and  pivoted  at  the  bottom  as 

regards  forwards  and  backwards 

motion  on  the  end  of  a  rod  (B),  which  can  be 

revolved   sideways   in   sockets.     At   the   rear 


How  the 

Decks  are 

warped. 


Fig.   1. DIAGRAM    SHOWING    THE    VARIOUS    PARTS    OF    THE    WRIGHT    AEROPLANE,    AND    THE    METHOD    OF 

WARPING    THE    DECKS. 


Balancing: 
Planes. 


whole  structure  of  the  body  is  suitably  stayed 
with  diagonal  wires  to  form  a  truss. 

About  8|  feet  to  the  rear  of  the  main  decks 
are  two  vertical  rudders  for  lateral  steering, 
2  feet  wide  and  nearly  6  feet  high.  Cross- 
spars  link  them  together. 
^o!r!"?=^r'*  For  vertical  steering  and  bal- 
ancing, a  couple  of  horizontal 
planes  are  mounted  10  feet  or 
so  in  front  of  the  main  decks,  similarly  inter- 
connected and  pivoted  on  vertical  extensions 
of  the  long  skates  on  which  the  machine  rests. 
Between  the  planes  are  two  semicircular  fixed 
planes  to  assist  in  the  maintenance  of  stability. 
A  lever,  held  in  the  pilot's  left  hand,  controls 
the  elevation  rudders. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  the  Wright 
machines  is  the  device  for  warping  the  wings, 
either  independently  of  or  in  conjunction  with 
movements    of    the    steering    rudders.      The 


end  of  this  rod  is  a  short  vertical  arm  (C) 
from  the  top  of  which  wires  (W^W^)  run  right 
and  left  several  feet  along  the  upper  side  of 
the  bottom  planes,  and  then  pass  upwards 
through  pulleys  to  the  tops  of  the  rear  wooden 
uprights  at  the  ends  of  the  decks.  Side  way 
movements  of  the  lever  R  flex  downwards  one 
or  other  end  of  both  decks.  A  secondary 
series  of  wires  (W^W^)  connecting  the  bottoms 
of  the  end  uprights  via  the  under  side  of  the 
top  decks  cause  a  reverse  flexure  at  the  other 
end  of  the  decks.  Thus,  if  the  lever  be  put 
over  to  the  left,  the  right  tips  are  drawn 
down  and  the  left  tips  bent  up.  By  this 
simple  system,  which  is  largely  responsible  for 
the  "  handiness  "  of  the  Wright  machines,  the 
pilot  is  enabled  to  make  the  decks  assist  the 
rudder,  or  the  rudder  assist  the  decks,  for 
preserving  balance  and  for  rounding  curves. 
The  reader  will  have  no  difficulty  in  under- 


FLYING    MACHINES    OF    TO-DAY. 


19 


standing  that  the  downward  flexing  of  one 
end  of  a  deck  will  make  that  end  rise  and 
lose  speed,  and  that  the  flattening  of  the  other 
end  will  diminish  "  lift  "  and  increase  speed. 
While  counteracting  a  tilt  the  drag  put  on 
one  side  slews  the  machine  on  its  vertical  axis, 
and  this  has  to  be  counteracted  by  a  simulta- 
neous moving  of  the  steering  rudders  in  the 
proper  direction.  Again,  the  rounding  of  a 
curve  with  the  assistance  of  the  rudder  alone 
would  produce  an  extra  lift  at  the  outside  end, 
where  the  speed  is  greatest ;  and  here  the 
ability  to  flex  the  inside  end  downwards  comes 


carriage  attached  to  the  under-side  of  the  body 
are  found  a  couple  of  long  wooden  runners  or 
skates,  which  prove  extremely 
efficient     for     absorbing     the       How^  the 
shocks    of    landing.     Prepara-  *  rt  d 

tory  to  a  flight  the  machine 
is  placed  on  a  wooden  trolley  having  two 
small  wheels  tandem,  running  on  a  rail  about 
23  yards  long.  Behind  the  machine,  and  in 
line  with  the  rail,  is  a  wooden  tower,  inside 
which  are  a  number  of  iron  discs  weighing 
about  1,500  lbs.  From  the  discs  a  rope  passes 
over  a  pulley  in  the  tower  top,  down  the  tower. 


WRIGHT    AEROPLANE 

ON 
THE    STARTING-RAIL. 

la  the  rear  is  the  tower 
with  weight  discs  raised. 
To  the  right  of  the  machine 
is  the  carriage  on  which  it 
is  movetl  to  the  starting- 
rail  after  a  descent. 

(Photo,  Topical.) 


in  useful.  Primarily,  the  flexure  is  for  the 
purpose  of  stability  ;  incidentally,  it  assists 
steering. 

The  four-cylinder  engine,  which  is  described 
in  another  place,  transmits  its  power  to  twin- 
screw    propellers   behind   the    decks    through 
chains,  one  crossed  so  that  the 
Engine  and       ropellers  shall  revolve  in  op- 
Propellers.       ^     f       ,.  m,      .     1- 

posite  du-ections.     ihe  indirect 

drive  is  taken  advantage  of  to  use  large  pro- 
pellers turning  at  little  more  than  a  quarter 
of  the  speed  of  the  engine.  Two  screws,  work- 
ing in  opposite  directions,  assist  stability  by 
eliminating  all  gyroscopic  action. 

The  Wrights  still  adhere  to  their  original 
system  of  starting  their  machine  by  means  of 
external  help.     In  place  of  the  usual  wheeled 


under  a  pulley  at  the  base,  along  the  ground 
to  a  pulley  at  the  far  end  of  the  rail,  and  back 
towards  the  carriage,  to  which  it  can  be 
attached  when  the  discs  have  been  hoisted  to 
the  summit  of  the  tower.  To  make  a  start, 
the  pilot  sets  the  engine  going  at  full  speed, 
and  releases  a  catch  which  had  previously 
prevented  the  carriage  from  moving.  The 
machine  darts  forward,  and  in  a  few  yards 
has  attained  sufiicient  speed  to  lift  it  from  the 
rail,  against  which,  however,  it  is  kept  by 
depressing  the  elevators.  On  reaching  the 
end  of  the  rail  it  is  shot  from  the  carriage, 
and,  the  elevators  being  now  quickly  raised, 
rises  into  the  air.  Against  the  wind  the  ma- 
chine can  be  started  along  the  rail  by  tlie 
propellers  without  the  aid  of  the  weights. 


J^^ 


FLYING    MACHINES    OF    TO-DAY. 


21 


THE   VOISIN   BIPLANE. 

This  machine,  which  came  into  prominence 
at  the  beginning  of  1908  as  the  first  successful 
rival  to  the  Wrights'  Flier,  is  based,  as  regards 
its  general  lines,  on  the  cellular  glider  devised 
in  1898  by  Mr.  Octave  Chanute.  It  consists 
of  two  superposed  main  decks,  33  feet  by 
6  feet  5  inches  (total  area  about  450  square 


Rudder 


Fig.    2. — DIAGRAM    OF    VOlSlN    BIPLANE. 

feet),  set  5  feet  apart  ;  two  smaller  superposed 
decks,  8  feet  by  6i  feet  (total  area  about  110 
square  feet),  connected  to  the  main  decks  by 
a  rigid  framework,  and  situated  about  13  feet 
to  the  rear  to  form  a  tail  ;  an  elevator  (total 
area  about  50  square  feet)  mounted  4|  feet  in 
front  of  and  on  a  level  with  the  lower  main 
deck  on  the  end  of  a  projecting  girder,  in 
which  are  situated  the  pilot's  seat  and  the 
control  gear.  The  "  tail  "  is  closed  at  each 
side  by  two  vertical  curtains,  and  the  main 
decks  are  united  by  four  vertical  curtains, 
extending  about  three-quarters  of  the  distance 
from  the  front  of  the  trailing  edge.  The  pur- 
pose of  these  curtains  is  to  give  vertical 
stability  and  obviate  the  need  for  warping  of 
the  decks  or  the  use  of  balancing  planes.  A 
single  vertical  rudder  inside  the  tail  serves  for 
horizontal  steering  (Fig.  2). 

Power  is  supplied  by  a  50  horse-power 
engine  geared  direct  to  a  single  high-speed 
propeller  astern  of  the  main  decks.  The  decks 
are  all  curved — the  curve  depth  being  one- 


fifteenth  of  the  fore  and  aft  width  of  the  deck 
— and  covered  on  the  lower  side  only  of  the 
ribs,  which  are  attached  to  two  main  cross- 
spars.  The  elevator  is  double  surfaced,  its 
horizontal  pivot  passing  between  the  two 
surfaces. 

The  machine  runs  on  four  wheels,  two  under 
the  main  decks  and  two  under  the  tail.  When 
at  rest,  the  decks  make  an  angle  of  8°  with 
the  horizontal,  and  lift  at  a  speed 
of  about  30  miles  per  hour.  When 
the  machine  has  risen  into  the  air 
and  the  speed  is  increased,  this 
angle  diminishes  to  al)Out  2°. 

A  very  interesting  feature  of  the 
Voisin  aeroplane  is  the  steering 
control,  of  which  a 
diagrammatic  sketch 
(Fig.  3)  is  given.  A 
steering  wheel  of 
motor-car  type  operates  a  horizon- 
tal rod,  which  can  be  moved  back- 
wards and  forwards,  and  also  revolved,  in 
sockets  on  the  body.     The  rod  is  connected 


Voisin 
Steering 
Control. 


Fig.  3. — DIAGRAM    SHOWING    STEERING   CONTROL  OF 
VOISIN    BIPLANE. 

through  a  universal  joint  and  a  second 
rod  to  the  elevator.  On  a  drum  mounted 
on  the  steering  pillar  are  wound  the 
wires  controlling  the  vertical  rudder  in  the 
tail.  The  driver  therefore  controls  both  ver- 
tical and  horizontal  movements  of  the  aero- 
plane by  the  same  steering  wheel.  The  Voisins 
claim  that  the  cellular  principle  is  inherently 
stable,  and  that  it  makes  for  ease  of  control 
and  safety  in  descent.  The  utility  of  vertical 
curtains  has  been  questioned.  It  is  main- 
tained  in  some  quarters  that  they  decrease 


TWO    VOISIN   BIPLANES   IN   THE    AIR   TOGETHER   AT   RHEIMS.  {Photo,  Illustrations  Bureau.) 

MR;  GLEN  N.   H.   CURTISS   ON   HIS   BIPLANE.  {Photo,  Illustrations  Bureau.) 

This  machine  is  the  lightest  and  swiftest  of  the  biplanes  that  competed  at  Rheims. 


FLYING    MACHINES    OF    TO-DAY. 


23 


speed  and  make  the  machine  "  unliandy  "  in 
rounding  corners.  The  popularity  of  the  type, 
the  quickness  with  wliich  the  novice  learns 
how  to  handle  it,  and  its  undoubted  longi- 
tudinal stability,  are  decided  points  in  its 
favour.  Nine  Voisin  machines,  having  540 
square  feet  of  supporting  surface,  and  weigh- 
ing, in  flying  order,  1,250  lbs.,  were  entered  for 
the  Rheims  meeting. 


plane  is  at  rest,  but  rise  during  flight  into  a 
horizontal  position.  Flexing  them  up  or  down 
enables  the  pilot  to  steer  the  machine  and  keep 
it  on  an  even  keel.  As  our  photographs  show, 
the  carriage  under  the  main  decks  has  four 
wheels  and  two  long  skates.  The  latter  serve 
to  take  the  main  shock  of  alighting  when  the 
impact  is  sufficiently  great  to  press  the  wheels  a 
certain  distance  upwards  on  their  flexible  joints. 


A    FARMAN    BIPLANE. 


{Photo,  Topical.) 


Observe  the  flaps  at  rear  of  the  decks,  used  for  maintaining  lateral  balance. 


THE    FARiNIAN    BIPLANE. 

This  type  of  machine  (Fig.  4),  which,  driven 
by  its  inventor,  carried  off  the  Grand  Prix 
for  distance  at  Rheims  with  a  flight  of 
180  kilometres  (112  miles),  won  the  prize 
given  for  carrying  the  greatest  number  of 
passengers  (two),  and  took  second  place 
in  the  altitude  contest,  is  designed  on 
Voisin  lines,  but  dispenses  with  vertical 
curtains.  The  front  elevator  is  placed 
somewhat  high.  To  assist  steering  and 
lateral  stability,  the  rear  ends  of  the 
main  decks  are  provided  with  hinged 
flaps,   which   hang   down  when   the    aero- 


Tlie  weight  of  a  Farman  aeroplane  is  about 
1,250  lbs.,  the  area  of  supporting  surface 
about  475  square  feet. 


Fig.    4. — DIAGRAM   OF   FARMAN    BIPLANE. 


24 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THE    CURTISS    BIPLANE. 

This  is  the  smallest  of  double-decked  ma- 
chines, having  but  280  square  feet  of  support- 
ing surface,  and  weighing  only  550  lbs.  Yet 
it  won  the  Gordon  Bennett  race  at  Rheims 
for  the  fastest  flight  of  20  kilometres  (in  15 
minutes  50|  seconds),  and  took  the  first  prize 
for  the  fastest  30  kilometres,  and  the  second 
for  the  fastest  10  kilometres.  The  chief 
features  of  this  aeroplane — which  is  of  Ameri- 
can origin — are  two  superposed  single-surfaced 
main  decks,  28 1  feet  long  and  4  feet  6  inches 
wide,  5  feet  apart  ;  a  double-decked  front 
elevator  (24  square  feet)  ;  a  horizontal  tail 
(12  square  feet)  ;  a  vertical  rear  rudder  ;  a 
single  propeller,  6  feet  in  diameter  ;  and  two 
balancing  planes  situated  between,  and  partly 
projecting  beyond,  the  tips  of  the  main  decks. 
The  planes  are  flexed  by  levers  operated  by 
movements  of  the  pilot's  body.  The  elevator 
and  rudder  control  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  used  on  the  Voisin  aeroplanes.  The  decks 
are  covered  on  the  lower  surface  with  rubberized 
silk,  pockets  of  which  enclose  the  ribs  above. 
An  engine  of  30  horse-power,  weighing,  with 
radiator,  about  200  lbs.,  is  used. 

The  Curtiss  is  essentially  a  one-man  machine, 
built  for  speed  rather  than  for  lifting  capacity. 

THE    CODY    BIPLANE. 

At  the  opposite  end  of  the  scale  from  the 
Curtiss  is  the  Cody  machine,  the  heaviest  and 
largest  aeroplane  yet  built,  and  also  distin- 
guished as  being  the  first  successful  flier  of 
British  construction.  The  main  decks,  double 
surfaced,  52  feet  long  by  7  feet  6  inches 
wide,  have  an  area  of  775  square  feet  ;  and 
the  front  elevators,  which  also  take  part  of 
the  load,  an  area  of  150  feet.  The  two  vertical 
ruddefrs  are  disposed  at  equal  distances  fore 
and  aft  of  the  main  decks  (Fig.  5). 

The  elevator  is  in  two  parts,  each  of  which 
can  be  moved  independently  of  the  other  to 
serve  the  purpose  of  balancing  planes.     Steer- 


ing is  assisted  by  warping  the  decks.  Both 
vertical  and  horizontal  rudders  are  operated 
by  a  single  steering  wheel  immediately  in 
front  of  the  pilot. 


Fig.  5. 


-DIAGRAM    OF    THE    CODY    BIPLANE. 


An  80  horse-power  "  E.N.V."  engine  drives 
two  propellers  mounted  between,  and  near  the 
forward  edges  of,  the  main  decks.  The  pro- 
pellers are  peculiar  in  being  wider  at  the  base 
than  at  the  tips. 

So  large  and  heavy  is  the  Cody  aeroplane 
— with  pilot  it  weighs  about  a  ton,  or  half  as 
much  again  as  the  Voisin  machine — that  the 
decks  have  been  so  designed  that  two  end 
sections,  16  feet  long  each,  can  be  removed. 
The  girder  supporting  the  elevator  also  is 
detachable,  and  the  rear  rudder  frame  folds 
back  against  the  body. 

After  many  unsuccessful  attempts  Mr.  Cody 
has  at  last  evolved  an  efficient  machine,  cap- 
able of  great  speed.  It  has  flown  at  nearly 
50  miles  an  hour.  On  September  8  it  put  up 
a  record  for  a  cross-country  flight  by  covering 
over  40  miles  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Alder- 
shot,  not  coming  to  ground  until  the  petrol 
supply  was  quite  exhausted.  At  one  point 
an  altitude  of  600  feet  was  attained. 

Coming  now  to  the  other  main  class  of 
flying  machines,  the  Monoplanes,  we  may  pay 
attention  to  three  types — those  known  as  the 
Bleriot,  Antoinette,  and  the 
Esnault-Pelterie.  In  general 
appearance  they  have,  when  viewed  from  a 
distance,    a   decided   resemblance  to   a   bird. 


Monoplanes. 


FLYING    MACHINES    OF    TO-DAY. 


25 


Indsed,  as  shown  in  some 
photographs  published,  the 
two-winged  monoplane,  with 
its  long  trailing  tail,  might 
well  be  mistaken  for  a  gigantic 
hawk  hovering  afar  off  in  mid- 
air. 

THE 
BLERIOT   MONOPLANE. 

The  Channel  flight  has 
brought  into  prominence  the 
successful  Blcriot  short -span 
machine  (No.  XI.),  and  its  less 
fortunate  but  considerably 
larger  rival,  the  Antoinette. 
The  aeroplane  on  which  M. 
Bleriot  crossed  the  "  silver 
streak "  is  the  smallest  but 
one  of  all  flying  machines  as  regards  sus- 
taining surface,  for  the  two  wings  have  a 
total    area    of    but    150   square    feet.      Since 


M. 


BLERIOT    CROSSING    THE    BORDEAUX    EXPRESS    DURING    HIS 
CROSS-COUNTRY    FLIGHT    FROM    ]&TAMPES    TO    ORLEANS. 

IPhoto,  Topical.) 

lift  a  considerable  angle  of  inclination  of 
the  decks  and  high  speed  are  needed.  The 
last  factor  is  attained  more  easilv  on  a  mono- 


9ir 


L 


A    BLERIOT    MONOPLANE    IN    FULL    FLIGHT. 

the  weight  of  machine  and  pilot  is  over  700 
lbs.,  every  square  foot  of  deck  has  to  sup- 
port nearly  5  lbs.     To  obtain  the  necessary 


Photo,  Uluatratiotis  Bureau,) 

plane  by  virtue  of  the  absence  of  the  uprights, 
cross-bracing,  etc.,  which  form  necessary  parts 
of  a  biplane,  and  oflfer  considerable  head  re- 


FLYING    MACHINES    OF    TO-DAY. 


27 


sistance.  We  may  add  that  the  builders  of 
monoplanes  seem  to  have  devoted  special  atten- 
tion to  the  shaping  and  finish  of  the  decks, 
which  in  all  cases  are  covered  on  both  sur- 
faces, and  brought  to  a  sharp  edge  in  front. 

M.  Bleriot's  small  monoplane  (Fig.  6)  has  a 
span  of  28  feet  and  a  length  over  all  of  25  feet. 
The  decks,  which  have  the  rather  low  aspect 


pletely   out   of  sight  ;     and    ;i.   .,o   horsp-powor 
engine  is  used. 

As  a  class  the  Bleriot  monoplanes  are  very 
speedy.  The  Chan- 
nel was  crossed  at 
an  average  velocity 
of  45  miles  per 
hour.     At    Rheims, 


ratio  of  4|  to  1,  are  rounded  at  the  ends,  and       M.  Bleriot  made  the 


Movable 


Tips 


Fig.    6. — DIAGRAM    OF    BLERIOT    MONOPLANE. 

are  detachable  from  the  body  for  convenience 
of  transport.  The  body  is  a  trussed  frame 
about  20  feet  long,  tapering  to  the  rear.  At  the 
front  end  is  placed  the  three-cyjinder  Anzani 
engine,  geared  direct  to  a  6-foot  6-inch  wooden 
propeller.  Immediately  behind  the  engine  is 
the  petrol  tank,  and  behind  that  again  the 
pilot's  seat,  which  is  in  line  with  the  rear  edge 
of  the  decks.  Near  the  after  end  of  the  body 
truss,  and  underneath  it,  is  the  fixed  tail,  with 
two  movable  elevating  tips.  At  the  extreme 
end  is  a  vertical  rudder.  Balancing  is  effected 
by  warping  the  main  decks.  The  wheeled 
carriage,  of  which  a  sketch  is  appended,  has 
some  points  of  interest  (Fig.  7). 

The  No.  XII.  monoplane  is  a  somewhat 
larger  machine,  having  a  deck  area  of  230 
square  feet.  In  point  of  weight  it  exceeds  all 
other  flying  machines — except  Cody's — with 
its  1,300  lbs.  Nevertheless  it  has  carried  two 
passengers  besides  the  pilot. 

In  the  latest  model  the  petrol  tanks  and 
lubricating  oil  reservoirs  are  housed  between 
the  two  surfaces  of  the  wings,  and  so  are  com- 


Fig.  7. — WHEELED  CAR- 
RIAGE OF  BLERIOT  MA- 
CHINE. 

fastest  time  for  a  single  lap  of  the    10  kilo- 
metre circuit. 

THE    ANTOINETTE    MONOPLANE. 

The  Antoinette  monoplane  (Fig.  8)  has  dis- 
tinguished itself  for  its  speed  and  wonderful 
capacity  for  attaining  great  altitudes.  During 
his  second  attempt  to  cross  the  Channel,  M. 
Latham  was  credited  with  a  velocity  of  nearly 
55  miles  per  hour.  In  deck  surface  and  weight 
the  Antoinette,  with  its  575  square  feet  and 
1,250  lbs.,  equals  the  larger  biplanes. 

The  wings,  which  have  a  spread  of  about 
40  feet,  project  from  a  boat-shaped  bodj',  along 
the  sides  of  which  run  the  tubes  of  the  engine 
radiator.  The  body  tapers  away  to  the  rear, 
on  which  are  set  two  vertical  and  one  hori- 
zontal rudder,  besides  two  fixed  vertical 
stability  planes.  Tlie  decks  are  inclined  at 
a  slight  upward  angle  to  each  other,  and  are 
covered  with  rubbered  silk  on  both  surfaces. 
To  maintain  stability,  two  small  wings,  or 
ailerons,  are  attached  to  the  back  of  the 
decks,  near  their  ends. 


28 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


The  vertical 
steering  is 
effected  by  a 
wheel  at  the 
pilot's  right 
hand,  balanc- 
ing by  a  wheel 
at  his  left,  and 
horizontal 
steering  by  a 
lever  operated 
by  the  foot. 

The  engine 
is  a  50  horse- 
power Antoi- 
nette, driving 
a  single  screw 
7  feet  2  inches 
in  diameter  at 
1,100  revolutions  per  minute.  A  large 
skate,  projecting  in  front  of  the  wheeled 
carriage,  helps  to  absorb  the  shocks  of  descent. 

At  the  Rheims  meeting  the  Antoinette 
monoplane  showed  to  advantage,  by  winning 
the  Prix  d' Altitude,  the  second  and  fifth  prizes 
in  the  Grand  Prix  distance  contest,  and  the 
second  prize  for  speed. 


LATHAM  S    ANTOINETTE    AS    IT    APPEARED    FROM    BELOW. 

{Photo,  Illustrations  Bureau.) 


THE  "R.E.P." 
MONOPLANE. 

This  mono- 
plane, built  by 
M.  Robert  Es- 
nault  -  Pelterie, 
has  decks  of 
215  square  feet 
area,  and 
weighs  about 
950  lbs.  Its 
spread  is  30 
feet  and  its 
length  25  feet. 
Both  decks  can 
be  warped  to 
maintain  bal- 
ance. A  hori- 
zontal movable  tail  and  vertical  rudder  are 
placed  at  the  rear  end  of  the  body.  At  the 
forward  end  is  a  50  horse-power  "  R.E.P." 
seven-cylinder  air-cooled  engine,  driving  a 
large  four-bladed  tractor  screw.  (This  inter- 
esting engine  is  described  in  the  next  article.) 
The  body  is  covered  in  with  fabric  to  decrease 
the  air  resistance. 


Horizontal 
Rudde/^ 


Shock  Absorber 


Fig.    8. DIAGRAM    OF    ANTOINETTE    MONOPLANE: 


AERONAUTICAL    ENGINES. 

A  review  of  some  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  internal  combustion  engines  that 
have  been  designed  specially  for  use  on  flying  machines. 


THE  provision  of  sufficient  motive  power 
and  the  reduction  of  weight  to  a  mini- 
mum are  two  problems  which  have 
exercised  the  constructors  of  flying  machines 
no  less  than  that  of  designing  efficient  support- 
ing surfaces.  The  Wrights,  v/hen  they  first 
decided  to  apply  power  to  their  gliders,  were 
confronted  by  the  fact  that  there  was  not  on 
the  market  an  engine  light  enough  for  their 
particular  purpose.  Sir  Hiram  Maxim  had, 
it  is  true,  lifted  his  great  experimental  machine 
from  the  ground  with  the  aid  of  a  steam 
engine  which  developed  a  horse-power  for 
every  6  lbs.  of  avoirdupois,  boilers  and  all 
fittings  included.  Professor  Langley  subse- 
quently propelled  a  model  aerodrome  with  a 
steamer  that  gave  an  output  of  1 J  horse-power 
for  its  7  lbs.  But  the  difficulty  of  keeping 
these  engines  supplied  with  water  and  fuel, 
and  certain  other  considerations,  had  made  it 
evident  that  another  form  of  prime  mover 
was  needed  for  aerial  flight.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  internal  explosion  engine  on  the 
motor  car  prepared  the  way  for  the  flying 
machine.     Most  of  the  aeronautical  engines  of 


to-day  are,  in  their  general  principles,  four- 
cycle motor-car  engines  greatly  improved  in 
the  matter  of  weight,  and  modified  in  detail 
wherever  modification  makes  for  lightness. 
The  designer  has  had  it  in  his  favour  that 
aerial  engines  are  not  called  upon  to  withstand 
the  vibrations  set  up  by  wheels  passing  over 
rough  roads,  or  the  strains  caused  by  clutches, 
gears,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  had  to 
be  very  careful  not  to  cut  weight  down  to 
danger  point,  as  a  failure  of  any  part  of  the 
engine  may  have  disastrous  consequences.  A 
very  large  proportion  of  aviators'  involuntary 
descents  to  earth  has  been  due  to  engine 
failures  ;  and  the  same  cause  was  responsible 
for  both  of  M.  Latham's  swoops  into  the 
Channel.  If  anj'thing  goes  wrong  with  a  car 
engine — which  is  a  rare  occurrence  nowadays 
— the  driver  can  stop  without  risk  to  inves- 
tigate. But  the  aerial  motor  must  be  even 
more  reliable  than  the  car  engine.  In  addition, 
it  must  be  extremely  efficient,  for  if  its  power 
falls  below  a  certain  minimum  the  machine 
must  come  down  too  ;  and  it  must  be  auto- 
matic,   supplying    itself    regularly,    and    inde- 


30 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


pendently  of  human  agency,  with  fuel,  lubri- 
cating oil,  and  electric  current. 

The   parts    of    an   aeronautical    engine    are 

necessarily  cut  as  fine  as  possible  in  regard  to 

mass.     The  cylinder  walls  are  reduced  to  the 

minimum    thickness.     Valves, 

ow  weig       pistons,    piston-rods,    cranks, 
IS  saved.  ^  -,■,■■, 

and   gearing   are   made   light. 

To  avoid  carrying  the  pound  or  so  of  water 
per  horse-power  for  cooling  the  engine,  air 
cooling  is  resorted  to  widely.  Where  water 
is  employed,  the  jackets  and  radiators  are  of 
very  thin  metal.  (At  present  it  seems  to  be 
a  moot  point  whether  the  weight  saved  by 
air-cooling  is  not  more  than  offset  by  a  loss 
in  power.)  To  increase  efficiency  the  cylinders 
are  often  provided  with  auxiliary  exhaust 
ports,  and  silencers  are  omitted. 

The  need  for  a  fly-wheel  of  considerable 
mass  on  a  four-cylinder  engine  has  brought 
the  five,  six,  seven,  eight  or  more  cylinder 
engine,  giving  a  more  or  less  constant  turning 
effect  and  perfect  balance  into  favour,  as 
enabling  fly-wheels  to  be  dispensed  with. 

Automatic  lubrication,  by  means  of  a  force 
pump,  is  a  sine  qua  non.  The  aviator's  atten- 
tion and  hands  are  too  fully  occupied  in  the 
maintenance  of  direction  and 
balance  to  be  available  for 
watching  and  regulating  sight  feeds,  hand 
pumps,  and  gauges.  The  light  mechanical 
oil  pumps  now  used  have  been  developed  to  a 
high  pitch  of  perfection  and  reliability. 

Under  the  head  of  carburation  some  reduc- 
tion of  weight  has  been  effected  by  replacing 
the  carburettor  and  large  induction  pipes  by 
a  pump  delivering  unatomized 
petrol  through  very  small  pipes 
direct  to  the  cylinder.  This  method  is,  how- 
ever, considered  to  be  sordewhat  wasteful  of 
fuel,  and  to  produce  overheating,  so  that  its 
use  is  decreasing  in  favour  of  the  spray  car- 
burettor. Magneto  and  accumulator  ignition 
are  used,  either  separately  or  in  combination. 
The   aerial   motor  will   doubtless   be   much 


Carburation. 


improved  in  the  future.  Sir  Hiram  Maxim 
expects  that  its  weight  will  be  reduced,  at  no 
distant  date,  to  1|  lbs.  to  the  horse-power. 
Even  as  at  present  developed  it  has  shown 
itself  capable  of  excellent  work,  despite  the 
fact  that,  as  compared  with  the  car  motor, 
it  gives  from  twice  to  three  times  the 
amount  of  power  per  pound  weight.  It 
can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  inventive- 
ness resulting  from  the  necessity  for  lightness 
of  construction  will  in  due  course  react 
upon  the  motor-car  engine,  and  cause  a 
great  reduction  in  the  avoirdupois  housed 
under  the  "  bonnet."  One  must,  neverthe- 
less, not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  a  very  light 
engine  of  high  quality  must  be  an  expensive 
engine,  as  it  requires  the  best  of  materials 
and  the  most  careful  manufacture,  which  last 
entails  highly-skilled  labour. 

We  may  now  review  briefly  some  of  the 
many  types  of  engines  which  merit  notice, 
paying  special  attention  to  distinctive  features. 
In  most  cases  the  weight  of  the  engine  is  given. 
The  figures  are,  however,  hardly  a  fair  criterion 
for  comparison,  as  some  makers  include  in 
their  totals  items  which  are  excluded  by  others. 

FOUR-CYLINDER    ENGINES. 

In  this  class  the  place  of  honour  will  be 
given  to  the  Wright  (Fig.  1)  type  of  engine, 
which,  however,  has  no  very  striking  features. 
The  four  cylinders,  arranged 
tandem  in  the  usual  motor-car 
fashion,  have  a  bore  of  110 
mm.*  and  a  stroke  of  92  mm.  The  valves 
are  situated  on  the  top  of  the  head  ;  the  inlets 
are  automatic,  the  exhausts  operated  by  over- 
head rocking  levers.  Water  cooling  is  used, 
water  being  forced  through  the  four  separate 
water  jackets  by  a  pump  mounted  on  the 
forward  end  of  the  crank  shaft.  Our  illus- 
tration shows  the  position  of  the  high  tension 

*  For  the  edification  of  the  reader  who  is  unacquainted 
with  the  metric  system  of  measurement,  it  should  be  stated 
that  25  millimetres  (mm.)  equal  one  inch. 


The  Wright 
Engine. 


AERONAUTICAL    ENGINES. 


31 


The  Qreen 
Engine. 


Fig.    1. — THE    WRIGHT    FOUR-CYLINDER   35    HORSE-POWER    ENGINE. 

(Pholo,  Topical.) 


magneto  driven  off  the  cam  shaft.  On  the 
farther  side  of  the  crank-case  is  a  small  worm- 
gear  driven  pump,  which  delivers  petrol  direct 
into  the  cylinders,  and  a  pump  for  forcing 
lubricating  oil  from  a  reservoir  in  the  bottom 
of  the  crank-case  through  the  main  bearings. 
A  very  simple  radiator,  of  flat 
copper  tubes,  is  mounted  ver- 
tically on  one  of  the  stanchions 
separating  the  decks.  It  is  to 
the  credit  of  the  Wrights  that 
they  designed  and  built  the  first 
petrol  engine  ever  used  for 
mechanical  flight.  So  far,  they 
have  not,  apparently,  seen  any 
good  reason  for  abandoning 
the  simple  type  with  which 
they  won  their  first  successes. 
The  Green  engine,  built  for 
the  Green  Motor  Patents  Syn- 
dicate by  the  Aster  Engineer- 
ing Company,  has,  in  addition 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  one  of 
the  at  present  very  few  British- 
made  aeronautical  engines,  sev- 


eral interesting  points.  It  is 
extremely  light  in  proportion 
to  its  power. 
The  nominal  35 
horse  -  power 
type  (Fig.  2)  scales  but  148 
lbs.,  so  averaging  about  4  lbs. 
to  the  horse- power,  fly-wheel 
included ;  the  60  horse-power 
model  weighs  236  lbs.  Light- 
ness has  been  obtained  without 
sacrificing  strength  by  ver\' 
careful  design.  The  cylinders 
and  valve  ports  are  cast  in 
high-grade  steel,  and  machined 
inside  and  out  to  the  maximum 
thinness  advisable.  The  water 
jacket,  pressed  out  of  thin 
copper  sheet,  encloses  com- 
pletely the  upper  part  of  the 
cylinder  and  valves.  A  grooved  flange 
projects  from  the  cylinder  to  accommodate 
a  rubber  ring,  against  w-hich  the  slightly 
bell-mouthed  open  end  of  the  jacket  presses, 
and  so  a  water-tight  joint  is  obtained.  The 
heat    of    the    engine    has    no    effect    on    the 


Fig.  2. — Tuv. 

GREEN   35 

HORSE-POWER 

ENGINE. 

WEIGHT, 

14^    LBS. 


32 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Fig.    3. — THE    GREEN    ENGINE.    TOP    VIEW. 
The  cam  shaft  and  rocking  levers  for  operating  the  valves  are  enclosed  in  an 

oil-tight  casing. 


outer  surface  of  the  rubber.  Interchangeable 
valves,  in  detachable  cages,  fastened  down  on 
the  valve  ports  by  internal  screwed  locking 
rings,  are  used.  All  joints  round  pipes  and 
ports  are  made  water-tight  by  pressing  the 
copper  jacket  against  the  metal  of  the  cylinder 
by  suitably  shaped  screwed  nipples  and  washers. 

The  valve-operating  cam  shaft  runs  along 
the  top  of  the  cylinders,  and  is  driven  through 
a  vertical  spindle  (seen  on  the 
left)  and  bevel  gear.  An  oil- 
retaining  casing,  which  encloses 
the  crank  shaft,  affords  bear- 
ings for  the  eight  rocking  levers 
for  operating  the  valves.  The 
casing  is  divided  into  two 
halves  vertically,  and  can  be 
rotated  on  the  shaft  when 
holding-down  clamps  have  been 
undone,  so  giving  easy  access  to 
the  valves.     (Fig.  3.) 

The  main  bearings  are  con- 
nected directly  to  the  cylinders 
by  vertical  bolts  passing  through 
columns  in  the  cross  divisions 
of  the  upper  half  of  the  alu- 
minium crank-case.  The  driv- 
ing stress  is  thus  taken  off  the 


crank-case  itself — a  very  de- 
sirable feature.  Space  is  left 
between  the  bolts  and  the 
columns  through  which  they 
pass  for  conducting  lubricating 
oil  from  a  force  pump  to  the 
bearings.  When  the  engine  is 
running  the  only  visible  point" 
in  motion  is  the  fly-wheel. 

An  80  horse  -  power  eight- 
cylinder  V  type  engine  com- 
prising the  same  features  was 
supplied  to  the  War  Office  for 
a  dirigible  balloon. 

Our  list  must  include  the 
Anzani  three-cylinder  engine, 
as  it  was  one  of  these  that 
brought  M.  Bleriot  safely  across  the  Channel 
in  his  memorable  flight  of 
July  25,  1909.  The  cylinders, 
of  100  mm.  bore  and  150  mm. 
stroke,  radiate  at  angles  of  60°  from  the  upper 
half  of  the  crank-case.  The  draught  from 
the  propeller  serves  to  carry  off  excess  heat, 
so  water-cooling  is  here  dispensed  with.  The 
exhaust  valves  are  assisted  in  scavenging  by 


The  Anzani 
Engine. 


Fig.  4. 


•THE    THREE-CYLINDER    25    HORSE-POWER    ANZANI    ENGINE, 
WHICH   TOOK    M.    BLERIOT    ACROSS    THE    CHANNEL. 

{Photo,  Topical.) 


AEROl^AUTICAL    ENGINES. 


33 


auxiliary  ports  in  the  cylinder  walls,  uncov- 
ered by  the  piston  at  the  end  of  the  stroke. 
The  engine  develops  25  horse-power,  and  has 


Fig.     5. "gnome"      Ki:\  ULV1,N(J      .SK\  1>A-C\  Ll.MJtK 

ENGINE      ATTACHED     TO     PROPELLER,      WHICH     IT 

CARRIES    ROUND    WITH    IT. 

This  engine  develops  50  h.p.,  and  weighs  only  160  lbs. 

Mr.  Henry  Farman  used  a  '*  Cnome  "  for  his  record  flight  of 

irj  miles  at  Kheims. 

(Photo,  Topical.) 

the  merit  of  being  extremely  compact.  Motors 
of  this  typo  are  fitted  to  several  Bleriot 
machines.     (Fig.  4.) 

We  now  come  to  a  very  interesting  class, 
the  five  and  seven  cylinder  star-shaped  en- 
gines, with  cylinders  radiating  at  equal  dis- 
tances from  the  circumference  of  a  central 
crank -case.  The  advantage  of  an  odd  number 
of  cylinders  thus  arranged  is  that  it  gives 
explosions  at  equal  distances  in  continuous 
sequence.     Tlius,  the  firing  order  of  the  cylin- 

(1,40S) 


ders  of  a  seven-cylinder  engine  is  1,  3,  5,  7, 
2,  4,  6,  1,  3,  5,  etc.  In  the  case  of  six  cylin- 
ders, arranged  in  star  fashion,  there  must 
either  be  a  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  sequence  of  ex- 
plosions during  one  revolution,  and  no  explo- 
sions during  the  next,  or  the  explosions  must 
occur  at  irregular  intervals  :    1,  3,  5,  2,  4,  6, 


SEVEN-CYLINDER    ENGINES. 

A  seven-cylinder  engine  which  has  proved 
very  successful,  and  was  used  on  two  of  the 
Farman  and  one  of  the  Voisin  machines  at 
the  Rheims  meeting,  is  the  "  Gnome  "  (Fig.  5). 
A  peculiarity  of  this  engine  is  that  the  cylin- 
ders and  crank-case  revolve  round  a  fixed 
crank-shaft,  from  \\  hich  the  pistons  get  a  push- 
off.  Their  rapid  motion  tlirough  the  air  cools 
the  cylinders  suificiently  without  the  aid  of 
water  circulation — which  would  be  difficult 
to  arrange  on  a  rotary  engine — and  renders  a 
fly-wheel  unnecessary.  This  last  feature  means 
a  considerable  saving  of  weight.     In  this  engine 


Fig.    0. — THE    SEVEN    PISTON    RODS    AND    COMMON 
"  BIO-END  "    OF    A    "  GNOME  "    ENGINE. 

One  of  the  seven  rods  is  integral  with  the  big-end.     The 
uihcr  six  work  on  pins  passing  through  it. 

Vol..    III. 


34 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


no  aluminium  is  used,  and  most  of  the  parts 
are  of  nickel  steel  forged  by  hand. 

The  stationary  and  hollow  crank-shaft  is 
attached  rigidly  to  the  frame  of  the  flying 
machine,  the  cylinders  and  crank-case  to  the 
propeller  itself — a  position  which  gives  the 
most  efficient  cooling — or  to  the  propeller  shaft. 
If  circumstances  demand,  the  engine  can  be 
mounted  with  its  axis  vertical,  to  drive  the 
propeller  shaft  through  bevel  gearing. 


All  seven  connecting  rods  work  on  a  single 
crank.  One  of  the  seven,  the  "  master," 
carries  a  double-disc  big-end,  pierced  with  six 
pairs  of  holes  to  accommodate  the  six  pins 
for  the  rods  (see  Fig.  6).  The  big-end  itself  is 
separated  from  the  crank  by  ball  bearings. 

The  50  horse-power  engine,  with  cylinders 
of  120  mm.  stroke  and  110  mm.  bore,  weighs 
but  160  lbs.,  or  but  little  more  than  3  lbs, 
to  the  horse-power. 


Fig.    7. — THE    "  BAYARD-CLEMENT  "    55    HORSE-POWER    SEVEN-CYLINDER    ENGINE. 

The  cylinders  are  stationary,  but  no  fly-wheel  is  needed. 


WEIGHT,    155    LBS. 

(Photo,  Topical.) 


The  explosive  mixture  is  drawn  by  the 
movements  of  the  pistons  through  the  crank- 
shaft into  the  crank-case,  whence  it  finds  its 
way  into  the  cylinders  through  automatic 
inlet  valves  situated  in  the  piston  heads. 
These  valves  are  counterbalanced,  so  as  not 
to  be  affected  by  the  centrifugal  force  of  rota- 
tion ;  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  exhaust 
valves  on  the  cylinder  heads,  operated  by 
rods  and  rocking  levers  from  cams  rotated  by 
epicyclic  gearing  at  the  end  of  the  crank- 
case.  The  magneto  and  a  pump  for  cir- 
culating lubricating  oil  are  mounted  on  the 
shaft,  and  do  not  revolve  with  the  engine. 


The  Bayard- Clement  seven-cylinder  engine 
(Fig.  7)  differs  from  the  "  Gnome  "  in  that  the 
cylinders  are  stationary  and  the  crank  revolves. 
The  exhaust  and  inlet  valves 
of  each  cylinder,   situated  on   ^^^  Bayard^ 
the  head,   are   operated  by  a        p      • 
single  rocking  lever.     A  small 
pump,    mounted    in    the    crank-case    on    the 
crank-shaft,  drives  water  through  jackets  sur- 
rounding the  cylinders.     The  carburettor,  out- 
side the  case,  is  connected  by  a  single  pipe  to 
a   chamber   inside   the   case   adjacent  to   the 
pump.     From  this  chamber  pipes  run  through 
the  walls  of  the  case  to  the  seven  inlet  valves. 


AERONAUTICAL    ENGINES. 


35 


The  "R.E.P." 
Engine. 


At  the  opposite  end  of  the  case  is  the  cam' 
which  works  all  seven  valve-tappet  rods.     The 
distributor   is   driven   by   a   half-speed   shaft, 
and  the  magneto  by  a  cross-shaft  and  bevel 
gearing. 

The  engine  is  mounted  with  its  shaft  vertical, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  A  bevel  gearing  is  there- 
fore needed  to  impart  motion  to  the  horizontal 
propeller  shaft.  Cylinders,  bore  110  mm., 
stroke  92  mm.  ;  power  developed,  55  horse- 
power ;  weight,  about  155  lbs.  No  fly-wheel 
is  used,  as  the  explosions,  occurring  at 
regular  intervals,  give  the  crank  a  constant 
torque.  f 

The  "R.E.P."  (Robert  Esnault-Pelterie), 
the  first  successful  seven-cylinder  engine,  has 
all  the  cylinders  mounted  on  the  upper  half 
of  the  crank-case,  four  being 
in  one  plane  and  three  in 
another.  The  crank  has  two 
throws,  operated  by  four  and  three  pistons 
respectively,  the  piston  rods  of  each  group 
being  attached  to  a  single  big-end.  Extremely 
light  pistons  are  used,  and  to  save  weight  the 
bearings  for  the  gudgeon  pin  of  the  piston  rod 
are  made  part  of  a  piece  which  screws  into  the 
socket  in  the  centre  of  the  piston  head,  and 
is  secured  by  a  screw.  A  peculiar  feature  of 
this  engine  is  that  one  valve  passage  serves 
for  both  inlet  and  exhaust.  The  inlet  valve 
is  of  the  ordinary  mushroom-headed  type. 
The  exhaust  valve  has  the  form  of  a  cylin- 
drical collar  surrounding  the  inlet  valve  stem, 
and  moving  up  and  down  in  a  cage,  the  walls 
of  which  are  perforated.  When  the  collar 
uncovers  the  ports,  the  cylinder  is  put  into 
communication  with  the  exhaust  pipe.  The 
seven-cylinder  "  R.E.P."  weighs  115  lbs.  and 
develops  30  horse-power.  A  ten-cylinder 
engine  with  two  sets  of  five  cylinders,  mounted 
in  four  planes  on  top  of  the  crank  case,  is  made. 
It  develops  40-50  horse-power.  The  cylinders 
of  these  motors  are  provided  with  external 
fins,  and  are  cooled  by  air  draught. 

This  section  may  end  with  reference  to  the 


The 
Antoinette. 


Adams  Farwell  five-i-\  unuti  rtv<»i\ing  air- 
cooled  engine.  Like  the  .Bayard-Clement,  it 
runs  round  a  vertical  crank-shaft.  The  36 
horse-power  size  is  remarkably  light — only 
97  lbs.  The  63  horse-power  type  weighs  4  lbs. 
per  horse-power.  Centrifugal  force  is  used  in- 
stead of  the  usual  coiled  springs  to  close  the 
valves. 

EIGHT-CYLINDER    ENGINES. 

The  first  extremely  light  aeroplane  engine 
put  on  the  market  was  the  Antoinette,  which 
has  won  a  high  reputation  for  itself.  The  air- 
cooled  type  scales  only  about 
2 J  lbs.,  the  water-cooled  about 
5  lbs.,  per  horse-power.  The 
cyHnders,  of  forged  steel,  are  grouped  in  two 
sets  of  four,  mounted  at  right  angles  to  one 
another  on  the  top  of  an  aluminium  crank-case. 
Two  pistons  operate  each  of  the  four  throws 
of  the  crank-shaft.  The  cam-shaft  for  work- 
ing the  eight  exhaust  valves  is  situated  inside 
the  case  over  the  crank-shaft.  By  moving  this 
shaft  slightly  end-ways  the  engine  can  be 
reversed.     The  inlet  valves  are  automatic. 

Where  water  cooling  is  used,. a  thin  copper 
dome-topped  jacket  surrounds  the  cylindec 
and  the  guide  of  the  exhaust  valve  stem.  At 
the  bottom  the  jacket  is  soldered  to  an  ex- 
ternal ring  on  the  cylinder. 

Lubricating  oil  is  forced  by  a  small  pump 
into  a  tube  running  along  the  inside  of  the 
top  of  the  crank-case,  and  squirted  in  all  direc- 
tions through  a  number  of  tiny  holes  on  to 
the  crank  and  cam-sliafts,  pistons,  rods,  and 
cylinder  walls.  Carburation  is  produced  by  a 
little  petrol  pump  driven  by  the  engine,  which 
delivers  petrol  into  eight  little  distributors 
placed  near  the  inlet  valves.  Tlie  distributors 
store  the  petrol  during  the  three  non-suction 
strokes.  When  the  inlet  valve  opens  the 
petrol  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder,  being  pul- 
verized and  vaporized  during  the  process. 
The  supply  is  regulated  by  altering  the  stroke 
of  the  pump's  plunger.     Tliis  system  avoids 


36 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


the  use  of  long  induction  pipes,  and  saves  a 
few  pounds  of  weight. 

Engines   of   the   eight-cylinder   V   class   in- 
clude that  manufactured  by  the  Wolseley  Tool 


Fig.    8. — THE    WOLSELEY    EIGHT-CYLINDER    60 
HORSE-POWER    ENGINE.       WEIGHT,    340    LBS. 

In  this  type  the  propeller  is  driven  off  the  cam-shaft  at 
half-engine  speed. 

and  Motor  Car  Company  (Figs.  8  and  9).     This 

firm's   engine   has   cylinders    of    3|-inch  bore 

and    5-inch    stroke.      All    the 

^      .  ■^    valves  are  operated  mechanic- 

Engine. 

ally  by  a  central  cam-shaft  and 

rockers.  The  cylinders,  of  close-grained  cast- 
iron,  are  cast  in  pairs,  and  each  pair  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  water-jacket  shaped  out  of  plan- 
ished sheet  aluminium.  Water  circulation 
through  the  jackets  is  on  the  thermo-syphon 
principle,  which  does  not  require  a  pump. 

A  float  feed  and  spray  tjrpe  carburettor  is 
mounted  in  the  centre  of  the  engine  directly 
over  the  cam-shaft — an  arrangement  which 
allows  of  short  induction  pipes,  and  ensures 


an  equal  distribution  of  explosive  mixture  to 
the  cylinders.  The  weight  of  the  engine,  com- 
plete with  fly-wheel,  ignition,  water-pipes,  and 
exhaust  pipes,  is  340  lbs.  ;  the  power  developed 
at  1,350  revolutions  per  minute  is  50  B.H.P.  ; 
and  the  maximum  obtainable  60  B.H.P. 
This  gives  an  average  of  about  6  lbs.  per  horse- 
power. For  aeroplane  work  the  engine  may 
be  arranged  to  drive  the  propellers  direct  from 
the  crank-shaft,  or,  by  means  of  gearing,  at 
cam-shaft  speed.  For  large  propellers  the 
second  method  is  preferable. 

The  Fiat,  Jap,  Pipe,  and  Renault  are  all 
air-cooled,  but  differ  considerably  in  detail. 
The  Fiat  (Fig.  10)  is  enclosed  in  a  circular 
case,  through  which  a  strong 
current  of  air  is  driven  by  a 
fan.  The  combustion  heads 
are  detachable  for  cleaning  the 
inside  of  the  cylinders.  The  engine  develops 
about  40  horse-power,  and  weighs  135  lbs. 


Other  Eight- 

Cylinder 

V  Engines. 


Fig.    9. — WOLSELEY    ENGINE,    DIRECT    DRIVE    TYPE. 
END    VIEW. 


AERONAUTTOAL    EXrxTXEf^. 


3: 


The  English-built  Jap  engine  has  a  bore  of 
85  mm.  and  a  stroke  of  95  mm.,  and  develops 


Fig.      10. — "  FIAT  "      EIGHT-CYLINDER      40      HORSE- 
POWER   AIR-COOLET)    KNOTNR.       WEIGHT,    135    LBS. 

(Photo,  Topical.) 

30-35   horse-power   at    1,000   revolutions   per 
minute,  and  weighs  about  5|  lbs.  to  the  horse- 


Fig.  11.  —  EIGHT- CYLINDER  70  HORSE  -  POWER 
"  PIPE  "    AIR-COOLED    ENGINE.       WEIGHT,    ;280    LBS. 

The  cylinders  are  enclosed  in  jackets,  through  which  air 
is  forcetl  by  a  fan. 

[Photo.  ''V.,:.-../  \ 

power.  The  70  horse-power  Pipe  engine  (Fig. 
11)  weighs  280  lbs.,  and  has  cylinders  of  100 
mm.    bore   and    100    mm.    stroke.      It  works 


at  very  high  speeds — up  to  2,000  revolutions 
per  minute.  The  cylinders,  furnished  with 
longitudinal  cooling  ribs,  are  covered  by  lit{ht 
aluminium  jackets,  through  which  lir  i- 
forced  by  a  centrifugal  pump  mounted  on 
the  crank-shaft.  Another  interesting  feature 
is  that  the  valves  of  each  cylinder  are  con- 
centric, and  operated  by  pairs  of  overhead 
rockers,  one  of  which  is  forked  so  as  to  allow 
the  point  of  the  other  to  move  through  it. 

The  Gobron  engine  (Fig.  12)  is  very  distinc- 
tive both  externally  and  internally.  Tlie  eight 
cylinders  are  arranged  in  four  pairs  to  form 
a  cross.  In  each  cylinder  are 
two  pistons  working  in  opposite 
directions.  When  an  explosion  occurs  the  pis- 
tons are  forced  apart,  one  moving  towards,  the 
other  away  from,  the  crank-shaft.  The  eight 
inner  pistons  have  the  usual  connecting  rods 
to  the  crank ;  the  outer  pistons  of  a  pair 
of  cylinders  are  connected  to  a  common  cross- 
beam  from  which  long   connecting   rods  run 


The  Gobron. 


Fig.    12. — EIGHT-CYLINDER    CROSS-SHAPKD 

"  GOBROX  "    ENGINE. 

The  80  horse- power  type  weighs  44<)  lbs. 

{Photo,  Topical  ) 

outside  the  cylinders  to  separate  cranks,  set 
in  line  at  an  angle  of  ISO"  to  the  central 
crank. 


THE    CRANKS    AND    CRANK-CASE    OF    ONE    OF   THE   220   HORSE-POWER   ENGINES    BUILT   FOR 

"  CLEMENT-BAYARD   II." 

(Photo,  Illustrations  Bureau.) 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  AEROPLANES 
AND   AERIAL    PROPELLERS. 


A  PART  from  the  engine,  propeller,  and 
yL-\  under-carriage,  the  aeroplane  may 
'*'  "•'  appear  to  the  uninitiated  to  be  an 
apparatus  that  could  easily  be  constructed 
by  any  person  "  clever  with  his  hands."  The 
decks  are  merely  wooden  frames  covered  on 
one  or  both  sides  by  fabric,  the  spars  and 
outriggers  nothing  but  easily-shaped  pieces  of 
wood.  Such  staying  with  cross  wires  as  is 
necessary  looks  a  simple  enough  job.  In 
short,  the  building  of  an  ordinary  pleasure 
boat  would  seem  to  be  a  much  more  difficult 
business  for  any  one  who  had  never  tried  his 
hand  on  it  before. 

A  closer  examination  of  the  matter  shows, 
however,  that  the  aeroplane  is  not  so  simple 
a  structure  as  a  first  view  might  lead  one 
to  think.  The  designer  has  constantly  to 
wrestle  with  an  arch  enemy,  weight,  which 
will  sneak  its  way  in  if  given  half  a  chance  ; 
and  in  keeping  it  at  bay,  he  must  be  careful 
not  to  open  the  door  to  weakness.  Then,  too, 
he  has  to  beware  of  exposing  an  undue  amount 
of  resisting — as  distinguished  from  lifting — 
surface  to  the  air,  lest  he  should  waste  the 
powder  of  his  engine  in  useless  work. 

To  begin  with  the  materials  used.  Bamboo 
is  commonly  considered  to  be  extraordinarily 
strong  for  its  weight.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it 
is  in  this  respect  decidedly  inferior  to  many 
other  woods  ;  while  its  hollo wness,  and  the 
impossibility  of  shaping  it  to  any  required 
section,  restrict  its  usefulness  considerably. 
A  table  of  relative  strengths  shows  that 
Honduras  mahogany  is,  weight  for  weight, 
two  and  a  half  times  as  tough  as  bamboo  ; 
lancewood,  twice  ;  spruce,  one  and  a  half 
times  ;  ash,  one  and  a  third  times. 


As  the  chassis  of  a  motor  car  is  built  entirely 
of  metal,  but  different  metals  are  used  for 
different  purposes,  so  in  the  wooden  frame- 
work of  an  aeroplane  we 
find  different  kinds  of  wood 
selected  for  special  duties.  Upright  stanchions 
between  decks  may  be  of  ash  ;  the  main 
spars  of  spruce  ;  the  ribs  of  ash,  hickory,  or 
poplar — woods  which  can  easily  be  bent  to 
the  proper  curves.  For  the  main  spars  of  a 
deck,  spruce  is  most  commonly  used  when  it 
can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  lengths,  and  is 
free  from  knots  and  "  shakes."  To  the  spars 
are  attached  the  ribs,  which  are  steamed  and 
bent  to  shape  on  wooden  templates.  The 
number  of  spars  varies  according  to  the  type 
of  machine.  Biplane  decks  usually  have  two 
only.  A  monoplane  deck,  having  to  rely  on 
itself  for  stiffness,  as  the  girder  form  of  con- 
struction is  not  available  with  a  single  tier 
of  decks,  may  possess  several  auxiliary  spars, 
in  addition  to  the  two  main  ones.  These  last, 
in  the  case  of  the  Bleriot  short-span  mono- 
plane, have  projecting  ends  which  fit  into 
sockets  in  the  body  of  the  machine,  to  render 
the  wings  easily  detachable  for  transport. 


Sfiar^ 


Flexible  BacKEdge     ^^^^gpj^r 

Fig.    1. — A    SINGLE-SURFACED    DECK,    SHOWING 
POCKETS    COVERING    SPARS. 

Decks  are  either  single  or  double-surfaced. 
The  first  typo  (see  Fig.  1)  has  the  ribs  attached 
to  the  top  of   the  front  spar 
and  to  the  under  side  of  the 
rear  spar.     The  fabric — cotton   cloth   or    silk 
impregnated  with  rubber  or  faced  with  cellu- 


AT    WORK   IN   AN    AEROPLANE    FACTORY. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    AEli01»LA.NE8    AxND    PROPELLERS.     41 


loid — is  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  tlio 
ribs,  and  the  rear  spar  and  the  ribs  are 
enclosed  in  pockets  of  the  same  material,  so 
that  no  surfaces  may  he  opposed  squarely  to 
the  passage  of  the  air.  This  method  of  con- 
struction is  economical  in  fabric,  but  the 
attachment  of  the  pockets  is  a  somewhat 
troublesome  business. 


Upper  Surface 


Fig.     2.— A 

SPARS     AND      BLOCKS 
LOWER    RIBS. 


Spar  SoX? 

DOUBLE-SURFACED      DECK,      SHOWING 


SEPARATING      UPPER      AND 


For  double-surfaced  decks  (see  Fig.  2)  the 
spars,  other  than  the  front  one,  are  enclosed 
by  the  ribs  and  fabric.  This  form  of  deck 
gives  a  better  "  run  "  for  the  air  over  the  upper 
side,  which  is  much  more  free  from  excrescences 
than  the  single-surfaced  deck,  and  is  therefore 
more  efficient. 

The  fabric  must  be  stretched  as  tightly  as 
possible  over  the  framework  to  prevent  undue 
sagging  under  pressure  of  the  air.  At  the 
trailing  edge  of  the  deck  it  is  commonly  passed 
round  a  taut  cable  running  longitudinally 
from  end  to  end,  or  round  a  fine  spar. 

The  upright  stanchions  between  the  decks 
of  a  biplane  are  of  oval  or  fish-shaped  sections, 
and  arranged  with  their  greatest  diameter  fore 
and  aft.  These  and  the  decks  are  braced 
together  diagonally  with  piano  wires  or  fine 
cables  drawn  tight,  and  provided  with  adjust- 
ments for  taking  up  any  slack.  It  is  important 
that  the  wires  should  not  be  able  to  vibrate, 
since  a  vibrating  wire  offers  more  resistance 
to  the  air  than  one  that  remains  quite  taut. 
The  girder  formed  by  the  deck  spars  and  the 
stanchions  is,  if  properly  designed,  very  strong. 
To  test  a  certain  glider,  weighing  only  about 
150  lbs.,  and  having  a  30-foot  span,  the  ends 
of  the  decks  were  supported  on  stools,  and  a 
14-stone  passenger  took  his  seat  at  the  centre. 
The  deflection  was  only  half  an  inch. 


Body  Work. 


The  Chassis. 


Outriggers  and  the  body  work  of  a  machine 
are  also  built  up  on  the  girder  principle,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  withstand  sudden  and  violent 
strains.  A  monoplane  body  is 
given  a  more  or  less  decided 
torpedo  or  boat  shape,  tapering  somewhat 
al)ruptly  towards  the  front  and  gradually  to- 
wards the  tail,  as  shown  by  our  illu.strations 
of  the  Bleriot  and  Antoinette  machines.  The 
covering-in  of  the  body  with  tightly  stretched 
fabric  helps  to  lessen  its  resistance  to  the  air. 

A  very  important  part  of  an  aeroplane  is 
the  chassis,  or  wheeled  carriage,  which  supports 
most  of  the  weight  while  the  machine  is  at 
rest,  and  enables  it  to  run 
easily  over  the  ground  when 
getting  up  speed  for  a  start.  In  the  cha.ssis 
steel  tubing  is  employed,  as  wood  could  not 
be  relied  upon  to  resist  the  sudden  shocks 
caused  by  alighting.  Two  or  more  wheels, 
shod  with  pneumatic  tyres,  are  generally  placed 
under  the  main  decks,  and  one  or  two  under 
the  tail  where  a  horizontal  tail  is  fitted.  Cody 
and  Curtiss  use  three  in  front,  Farman  four, 
and  Voisin  two.  Voisin  and  Bleriot  mount 
their  wheels  castor  fashion,  so  as  to  adjust 
themselves  automatically  to  the  direction 
which  the  aeroplane  may  take,  and  interpose 
springs  to  minimize  shocks  to  the  body  of  the 
machine.  Special  springs  are  provided  to 
bring  the  wheels  into  a  fore  and  aft  position 
when  the  aeroplane  rises  from  the  ground. 

The  Wrights,  by  dispensing  with  a  wheeled 
chassis,  reduced  the  total  weight  of  their  bi- 
plane and  also  its  air  resistance  considerably. 
The  Voisin  chassis  accounts  for  250  lbs  oi 
half  as  much  again  as  the  main  decks. 

SCREW    PROPELLERS. 

Good  design  of  aeroplanes  and  high  engine 
power  in  proportion  to  weight  are  of  little 
avail,  if  the  means  of  converting  the  engine 
power  into  work  are  inefficient.  Locomo- 
tives driven  over  rails  and  rocids  are  en- 
abled to  transmit  their  force  from  the  moving 


42 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


body  to  the  fixed  surface  without  appreciable 
loss.  But  in  water  and  air,  which  can  be  dis- 
placed easily,  the  problem  of  getting,  so  to 
speak,  a  good  push-off  is  one  that  has  de- 
manded close  investigation  and  a  huge  amount 
of  experiment. 

For  moving  a  ship  or  a  flying  machine  the 


CONSTRUCTING    A    FOUR-BLADED    PROPELLER    OUT    OF    SUPERIMPOSED    LAMINA 
OF   WOOD.  {Photo,  London  Electrotype  Agency.) 


screw  propeller  has  no  rival.  The  marine 
propeller  has  been  brought  to  great  perfec- 
tion ;  air  propellers  are  being  improved 
rapidly,  but  are  still,  as  a  class,  wasteful  of 
power. 

The  air  propeller  is  in  principle  closely  allied 
to  the  curved  deck  of  the  aeroplane.  As  it 
revolves  it  strikes  the  air  at  an  angle,  and 
produces  thrust,  which  is  the  counterpart  of 
the  lift  of  a  deck.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
speed  of  the  parts  of  a  propeller  blade  vary 
with  their  distance  from  the  centre  of  rotation, 
it  is  necessary  to  increase  the  steepness  of  the 
angle  of  the  blade  gradually  from  the  tip  to 
the  base  in  such  a  way  that  the  increase  of 


angle  may  counterbalance  the  decrease  in 
rotary  speed,  and  enable  all  parts  of  the 
blade's  surface  to  push  back  the  air  with  an 
equal  velocity.  Otherwise,  there  would  be  a 
great  waste  of  power,  some  portions  of  the 
blade  acting  as  a  drag  on  the  others. 

A  propeller  blade  would,   if  flattened  and 

set  square  to  the 
axis  of  the  propeller 
shaft,  offer  a  mini- 
mum turning  resist- 
ance ;  if  set  with  its 
surfaces  in  line  with 
the  shaft,  a  maxi- 
mum resistance.  In 
neither  case  would 
it  have  any  lift  or 
thrust.  The  de- 
signer has  to  con- 
sider how  to  curve 
the  blades  so  as  to 
give  a  maximum 
thrust  for  a  mini- 
mum windage, 
which  is  the  counter- 
part of  drift,  and 
at  the  same  time 
he  must  be  careful 
to  make  the  sur- 
faces as  smooth  as 
possible  in  order  to  keep  air-friction  very  low. 
The  efficiency  of  a  screw  is  gauged  by  the 
amount  of  thrust  which  it  gives  in  proportion 
to  the  force  exerted  to  turn  it.  The  thrust 
itself  is  arrived  at  by  multiply- 
ing the  weight  of  the  mass  of 
air  acted  on  in  a  second  by  the  velocity  in 
feet  per  second  at  which  that  mass  of  air  is 
moved.  The  amount  of  air  engaged  varies 
— the  pitch  being  constant — as  the  square  of 
the  diameter  of  the  propeller.  The  velocity 
in  feet  per  second  at  which  it  is  moved  is  the 
pitch  multiplied  by  the  number  of  revolutions 
per  second. 

Assuming  that  the  screw  is  perfectly  effi- 


Thrust. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  AEROPLANES  AND  PROPELLERS.  43 


A    PROPELLER    WHIRLING    AT    HIGH    SPEED. 


{Photo,  Illtistrations  Bureau.) 


cient,  the  full  thrust  for  power  may  be  obtained 
either  by  using  a  small  screw  revolving  at 
engine  speed,  or  a  larger  screw  turning  at 
less  than  engine  speed.  In  the  first  case  the 
mass  of  air  is  less  than  in  the  second  case, 
but  the  velocity  imparted  to  it  is  greater  : 
in  the  second,  the  mass  is  larger  but  the 
velocity  less.  The  essential  point  is  to  pro- 
portion and  gear  the  propeller  so  that  the 
engine  shall  be  able  to  run  at  its  most  efficient 
speed. 

So  far  the  imparting  of  motion  to  air  by  a 
fixed  propeller  has  been  considered.  To  obtain 
the  rate  of  progression  in  feet  per  minute  at 
which  a  machine  would  be 
driven  by  the  propeller  through 
the  air  one  must  multiply  the  jjitch  of  the 
propeller  in  feet  by  the  number  of  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  deduct  the  "  slip  " — that  is, 
the  velocity  of  the  air  flung  back  by  the  pro- 
peller. A  propeller  with  a  5-foot  pitch  re- 
volving four  hundred  times  per  minute  would 
have  a  "  designed  "  forward  speed  of  2,000  feet 
per  minute.  If  the  air  left  it  at  500  feet  per 
minute,  the  actual  speed  of  the  machine  would 


Slip. 


be  1,500  feet  per  minute. 
High  velocity  of  slip  is  not 

necessarily  a  test  of  thrust, 
as  it  depends  largely  on  the 
resistance  of  the  machine  to 
the  air. 

In  practice  it  is  found 
that  a  large  propeller  turn- 
ing at  comparatively  low 
speeds  gives  a  greater  thrust 
than  a  smaller  propeller 
driven  at  very  high  speed, 
the  power  exerted  being  the 
same  in  both  ca.ses,  and  the 
pitch  proportioned  to  give 
the  requisite  flight  sjieed  ne- 
cessary to  support  the  aero- 
plane. For  this  reason  the 
Wrights  use  two  large  slow- 
speed  propellers,  to  which  is 
due,  in  no  small  degree,  the  high  efficiency  of 
their  machines  proportionately  to  the  horse- 
power of  the  motors  employed.  Convenience 
of  attachment  is  a  point  in  favour  of  the  direct 
driven  propeller,  found  on  most  monoplanes 
and  many  biplanes.  There  is  a  growing  tend- 
ency, however,  to  increase  the  size  of  the  pro- 
peller where  convenient.  We  may  note,  by 
way  of  example,  that  Bl<^riot  now  uses  geared- 
down  screws  of  large  diameter  for  his  heaviest 
monoplanes. 

The  highest  efficiency  obtained  so  far  by 
an  aerial  propeller  does  not  exceed  probably 
70  per  cent.  It  is  anticipated  that  this  may 
be  improved  upon  until  85  to  90  per  cent, 
of  the  engine  power  is  usefully  applied.  This 
will  make  possible  a  considerable  reduction  in 
weight  of  engine,  which  in  turn  will  lead  to  a 
diminution  in  the  size  of  aeroplanes. 

Propellers  are  made  of  steel,  aluminium, 
magnalium,  and  various  kinds 
of  wood.  On  the  whole,  the 
wooden  propeller  appears  to 
be  most  satisfactory.  It  can  be  made  ex- 
ceedingly  light   without   sacrificing    strength, 


Construction 
of  Propellers. 


44 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


keeps  its  shape  well  under  heavy  pressure, 
and  admits  a  surface  polish  which  reduces  skin 
friction  practically  to  vanishing  point.     The 


woods  selected  for  its  manufacture  are  walnut 
and  spruce.  The  last  is  very  light,  easily 
shaped,  and  tough. 


AVIATION    RECORDS. 


Date. 

Aviator. 

J'lace. 

Type  of 
Machine. 

Duration  of  Flight. 

Distance,  etc. 

1897.   Oct.    17. 

Ader. 

Satory,  France. 

Mono- 
plane. 

1,000  ft. 

1903.  Dec.  17. 

Orville  and 
Wilbur  Wright. 

Dayton,  U.S.A. 

Biplane. 

59  sees. 

1905.  Sept.  26. 

jj 

,, 

,, 

18  min.  9  sec. 

11  miles. 

„    29. 

^j 

jj 

,^ 

19  min.  55  sec. 

12  miles. 

Oct.  3. 

., 

,j 

25  min.  5  sec. 

15J  miles. 

„    4. 

., 

^^ 

33  min.  17  sec. 

21  miles. 

„    5. 

^, 

,, 

38  min.  3  sec. 

24 1^  miles. 

1906.  Aug.  22. 

A.  Santos 
Dumont. 

Bagatelle,  France. 

" 

Rose  from  the  ground. 

First  public  flight. 

Sept.  14. 

,, 

„ 

,, 

A  few  seconds. 

Oct.  24. 

jj 

,, 

,^ 

4  sec. 

160  "ft. 

Nov.  13. 

,, 

„ 

jj 

7  sec. 

270  ft. 

„    13. 

,^ 

J, 

21i  sec. 

722  ft. 

1907.  Oct.   15. 

H.  Farm  an. 

Issy,  France. 

,^ 

21  sec. 

937  ft. 

„    26. 

„ 

,, 

,, 

27  sec. 

1,267  ft. 

„    26. 

„ 

,, 

,j 

31f  sec. 

1,322  ft. 

„    26. 

^^ 

., 

,, 

52|  sec. 

2,529  ft. 

1908.  Jan.   13. 

^^ 

jj 

^j 

1   luin.  28  sec. 

1,093  yards.     (First  circular  flight.) 

Mar.  21. 

,, 

^j 

„ 

3  min.  31  sec. 

1-24  miles. 

Aprilll. 

L.  Delagrange. 

,, 

„ 

6  min.  30  sec. 

2-43  miles. 

May  30. 

,, 

Rome. 

,, 

15  min.  26  sec. 

7*88  miles. 

„    30. 

H.  Farman. 

Ghent,  Belgium. 

" 

1,360   yards.     With   E.   Archdeacon 
as  passenger ;    first  public  pas- 
senger flight. 

July  6. 

J, 

Issy,  France. 

,, 

20  min.   lOf  sec. 

12-66  miles. 

Sept.  6. 

L.  Delagrange. 

,, 

„ 

29  min.  53f  sec. 

14-23  miles. 

„    9. 

Orville  Wright. 

Fort  Myer,  U.S.A. 

,, 

57  min.  31  sec. 

„     10. 

,j 

J, 

J, 

1  hr.  5  min.  52  sec. 

„    11. 

,, 

^j 

1  hr.  10  min.  24  sec. 

„     12. 

,^ 

,, 

„ 

1  hr.  14  min.  20  sec. 

„     12. 

" 

" 

" 

9  min.  6  sec. 

With  Major  Squier  ;  record  passenger 
flight. 

„     21. 

Wilbur  Wright. 

Le  IVIans,  France. 

j^ 

1  hr.  31  min.  25  i  sec. 

41  miles. 

„     25. 

,, 

„ 

., 

11  min.  35  sec. 

With  passenger. 

Oct.  3. 

,, 

,, 

,, 

55  min.  37f  sec. 

„ 

„    6. 

^^ 

^j 

^^ 

1   hr.  4  min.  26i  sec. 

,, 

„     10. 

J, 

J, 

^^ 

1   hr.  9  min.  45|^  sec. 

34-2  miles.    With  passenger. 

„    30. 

H.  Farman. 

Chalons,    France. 

" 

20  mins. 

16-5  miles.    First  cross-country  flight. 
Chalons  to  Rheims. 

„    31. 

L.  Bleriot. 

Touryi  France. 

Mono- 
plane. 

17*5    miles.       First    cross  -  crountry 
flight,   with  return  to  starting- 
point  ;    Toury  to   Artenay  and 
back  ;   two  landings  on  the  way. 

Dec.  18. 

Wilbur  Wright. 

Le  Mans,  Frar.ce. 

Biplane. 

1  hr.  54  min.  53*  sec. 

62  miles. 

,,    31. 

jj 

,^ 

jj 

2  hr.  20  min.  23i  sec. 

77J  miles. 

1909.  July  ^5. 

L.  Bleriot. 

Calais  to  Dover. 

Mono- 
plane. 

37  min. 

30  miles. 

Aug.    7. 

R.  Sommer. 

Chalons,  France. 

Biplane. 

2  hr.  27  min.   15  sec. 

„    25. 

L.  Paulhan. 

Rheims,  France. 

„ 

2  hr.  43  min.  24f  sec. 

82  miles. 

„    26. 

H.  Latham. 

" 

Mono- 
plane. 

2  hr.  17  min.  21|-  sec. 

96|  miles. 

»    27. 

H.  Farman. 

jj 

Biplane. 

3  hr.   4  min.  56f-  sec. 

112  miles. 

„    29. 

" 

» 

» 

10  min.  39  sec. 

6-21    miles.     First    flight    with    two 

Sept.    8. 

S.  F.  Cody. 

Aldershot. 

» 

1  hr.  3  min. 

passengers. 

46  miles.     First  cross-country  flight 

in  England. 

„    17. 

Orville  Wright, 

Berlin. 

„ 

Attained    altitude    of 

607  feet. 

„    18. 

,, 

,, 

,, 

1  hr.  35  min.  47  sec. 

Record  with  passenger. 

»    19. 

H.  Rougier. 

Brescia. 

,, 

Attained     altitude    of 

650  feet. 

„     30. 

0,  Wright. 

Berlin. 

„ 

Attained    altitude    of 

902  feet. 

For  Records  of  Dirigible  Balloons  see  page  64. 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


IN  the  minds  of  a  good  many  persons  there 
undoubtedly  exists    a    confusion  as  re- 
gards the  terms  "  airships  "  and  "  flying 
machines."     That  this  should  be  so  is  some- 
.  what  curious,  as  a  little  thought 

must  make  it  evident  that  a 
"  ship  "  implies  something  that  floats  by  virtue 
of  its  own  buoyancy  in  the  medium  through 
which  it  moves;  and  the  term  airship,  therefore, 
must  apply  only  to  the  dirigible  balloon.  On 
the  other  hand,  every  living  thing  that  flies 
is  heavier  than  air,  and  supports  itself  only 
by  the  action  of  moving  parts  on  the  air. 
Hence  the  words  "  flying  machine  "  obviously 
refer  to  contrivances  which  lift  as  well  as 
propel  themselves  by  the  development  of 
power.  The  airship  has  its  counterpart  in 
the  submarine  boat  ;  the  flying  machine  may 
be  compared  to  the  hydroplane,  which  is  sup- 
ported when  moving  at  high  speed  by  the 
resistance  to  water  of  more  or  less  oblique 
horizontal  surfaces,  and  not  by  buoyancy. 

If  the  atmosphere  surrounding  our  globe 
were  untroubled  by  currents,  the  dirigible 
balloon  would  have  "  arrived "  many  years 
ago.  To  make  a  cigar-shaped  envelope,  attacli 
thereto  a  car,  and  provide  motive  power  of 
some  kind  would  not  have  presented  very 
serious  difficulties  ;    and  the  improvonuMit   (if 


Shape  of 
Airships. 


motors  would  have  greatly  increased  the,  at 
first,  unavoidably  low  speeds.  Unfortunately, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  "  dirigible,"  the 
air  ocean  has  a  constant  motion,  at  times  al- 
most imperceptible,  at  others  terrifying  in  its 
velocity.  Even  the  more  gentle  of  the  inter- 
mediate strengths  of  current  have  to  be 
reckoned  with. 

The  resistance  of  the  air  to  a  large  body 
moving  through  it  demands  that  the  shape  of 
a  dirigible  should  bo  considered  carefully.  A 
sphere  has  greater  volume  than 
a  body  of  any  other  shape 
proportionately  to  its  surface. 
But  to  drive  a  sphere  through  the  atmosphere 
requires  half  the  power  needed  to  propel  a 
circular  plane  of  equal  diameter  flatways  on  ; 
and  therefore  a  spherical  form  is  evidently 
not  suited  for  a  "  dirigible."  On  the  other 
hand,  the  more  or  less  cigar-shaped  form 
adopted,  though  offering  less  resistance,  has 
an  envelope  that  is  heavy  relatively  to  the 
volume  of  gas  imprisoned.  Its  efficiency  is, 
however,  augmented  by  a  general  increase  in 
dimensions — the  proportions  being  constant — 
as  the  doubling  of  surface  area  of  the  envelope 
far  more  than  doubles  the  cubical  contents. 

To    consider    for    a    moment     the    shape. 
Ts\'p»'ritiu«nt    has   sl)')\vii.    that    a   lioinisplierical 


THE   "COLONEL  RENARD "    AT   RHEIMS.  {Photo,  Illustrations  Bureau.) 

This  is  one  of  the  smaller  French  non-rigid  dirigibles,  with  stabilizing  ballonets  at  the  stern. 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


47 


<%-,*. 


^ 


1^^ 


THE    MAL^COT  .6i:.Mi-iaGlU    AIlt-SHIi' 


[Photo,  Bolak.) 

To  the  balloon  are  attached  a  number  of  planes,  which  can  bo  set  at  an  angle  to  the  horizontal  to  give  vertical  motion. 
In  case  of  the  collapse  of  the  gas-holder,  thoy  would  also  have  some  of  the  effect  of  a  parachute. 


Prows  and 
Sterns. 


prow  and  a  conical  tail  give  the  best  results 
as  regards  minimizing  resistance.  It  is  much 
less  important  to  avoid  a 
blunt  prow  than  to  keep  the 
lines  of  the  after-part  fine, 
since  the  resistance  of  the  air  to  being  pushed 
aside  is  small  as  compared  with  the  "  suck  " 
of  a  badly-shaped  stern.  The  ideal  form  has 
been  adopted  for  a  recently  built  Italian  air- 
ship, and,  with  modification,  for  most  other 
dirigibles.  German  examples — the  Zeppelins 
excluded — have  the  hemispherical  prow  and 
conical  tail,  but  those  are  separated  by  ;i 
cylindrical  body.  Some  French  airships  have 
a  conical  prow.  The  Zeppelins  are  distin- 
guished by  a  very  long  cylindrical  body,  ter- 
minated at  both  ends  by  what  may  be  ternK  ( 1 
a  spherical  cone.     In  this  type  the  head  re- 


sistance is  said  to  be  about  one-fifth  of  that 
of  a  circular  plane  of  the  same  area  as  the 
cross-section  of  the  body.  In  practice  the 
shape  of  the  envelope  is  governed  by  several 
factors  other  than  that  of  mere  resistance, 
and  is  more  or  less  of  a  compromise.  In  a 
paper  on  military  aeronautics,  Major  G.  O. 
Squier,  of  the  United  States  Army  Signal 
Corps,  laid  it  down  that  the  power  consumed 
in  propelling  a  displacement  vessel  supported 
by  air  or  water  at  any  con- 
stant speed  is  considered  as 
hoing  two-thirds  consumed  by  skin-resistance 
or  surface  resistance,  and  one-third  by  head 
resistance  ;  and  that  a  dirigible  balloon  carry- 
ing the  same  weight,  other  things  being  equal, 
may  be  made  to  travel  about  twice  as  fast  as 
a  boat  for  the  same  power,  or  to  i  (>  made  to 


Resistances. 


48 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


travel  at  the  same  speed  with  the  expenditure 
of  about  one-eighth  of  the  power.  "  As  there 
are  practically  always  currents  in  the  air 
reaching  at  times  a  velocity  of  many  miles 
per  hour,  a  dirigible  balloon  should  be  con- 
structed wiih  sufficient  power  to  be  able  to 
travel  at  a  speed  of  about  50  miles  per  hour, 
in  order  that  it  may  be  available  under  prac- 
tical conditions  of  weather.  In  other  words, 
it  should  have  substantially  as  much  power 
as  would  drive  a  boat,  carrying  the  same 
weight,  25  miles  an  hour,  or  should  have  the 
same  ratio  of  power  to  size  as  the  Lusitania.^' 
The  pressure  on  the  envelope  of  a  balloon, 
when  the  latter  is  moving  at  high  velocity 
relatively  to  the  air,  must  indent  it  and  cause 
great  increase  of  resistance  un- 
less the  envelope  be  either  kept 


Pressure  on 
the  Envelope. 


taut  by  inflation  or  supported 
by  a  rigid  framework  of  some  kind.  As  high 
inflation  is  prevented  by  the  comparative 
weakness  of  the, fabric,  and  oven,  if  feasible, 
would  mean  a  sufficient  compression  of  the  gas 
to  cause  a  serious  loss  of  buoyancy,  the  "  rigid  " 
school,  whose  great  exponent  is,  of  coi^se.  Count 
von  Zeppelin,  makes  use  of  an  internal  skeleton, 
a  light  polygonal  girder  running  from  stem  to 
stern.  The  weight  of  the  girder  makes  great 
volume  necessary,  and  to  obtain  this  without 
increasing    the    head    resistance   unduly,    the 

body  is  given  a  length  of  rather 

eppe  in        j^ore  than  ten  diameters.     A 
Principle.         .  ^    ,  .      , 

single  container  of  this  shape 

would  be  subjected  to  dangerous  surgings  of 
gas  to  and  fro  as  either  end  rose  and  fell,  so 
Zeppelin  has  adopted  a  number  of  small 
balloons  separated  from  one  another  by  parti- 
tions, and  from  the  external  covering  of  the 
balloon  by  an  air-space  which  serves  to  insulate 
the  gas  from  the  changes  in  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere.  This  subdivision  has  the 
further  advantage  of  localizing  damage  to  the 
balloon.  Had  the  ill-fated  Rejnihlique  not  had 
a  single  chamber,  she  might  have  come  to 
ground  without  fatal  results. 


Ballonets. 


For  non-rigid  dirigibles  one  or  more  internal 
air  ballonets  are  used.  Air  is  pumped  con- 
stantly into  them,  escaping  again  through  a 
valve  if  the  pressure  rises 
above  a  certain  point.  The 
gas  chamber  also  is  provided  with  a  valve, 
acting  at  a  somewhat  higher  pressure,  so  that 
under  no  conditions  can  the  distension  of  the 
ballonets  cause  a  loss  of  gas.  If  the  gas  is 
expanded  by  a  rise  in  temperature,  the  ballonet 
is  squeezed  until  the  pressure  is  normal.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  gas  contracts  or  leaks, 
the  ballonet  swells  out  until  equilibrium  is 
restored. 

The  distribution  of  the  load  over  the  gas 
holder  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  strain  any  part 
unduly  is,  in  the  case  of  a  Zeppelin  airship, 
simplified  by  the  employment 
of  a  girder  keel.     Unless  the 


Distribution 
of  the  Load. 


distribution  is  made  properly 
over  a  non-rigid  envelope,  there  must  be  a 
danger  of  the  balloon  collapsing.  To  simplify 
tlie  problem  a  keel  or  frame  fitting  the  lower 
side  of  the  envelope  is  used,  and  from  it  are 
slung  the  car,  motor,  etc.  Dirigibles  thus 
provided  are  known  as  semi-rigid,  and  have 
some  of  the  stiffness  of  the  Zeppelin  type, 
while  being  capable  of  deflation  like  the  non- 
rigid  type,  though  less  convenient  for  trans- 
port by  land.  The  German  Oross  and  the 
French  Lebaudy  and  Republique  belong  to 
this  class. 

The  rigid  airship  has  a  further  advantage 
over  the  non-rigid  in  that  the  propellers  can 
be  attached  to  the  gas-holder  frame  and 
deliver    their    thrust    at    the 

same  elevation  as  that  of  the       ^J*l      *^" 

of  Power. 

centre  of  air  pressure.     In  the 

case  of  a  non-rigid  or  serai-rigid  airship,  the 
propellers  are  mounted  far  below  the  centre 
of  pressure,  and  this  produces  a  tilting  action 
and  less  efficient  drive. 

Renard,  during  his  experiments  in  1884 
and  1885,  found  that  his  airship  began  to 
pitch — tilt    up    and    down    longitudinally — as 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


49 


SEVERO'S    DIRIGIBLE    BALLOON    (1902): 

The  propeller  shaft  was  moiinted  at  the  axis  of  the  balloon  to  give  a  dirwt 
thrust.  Two  small  propellers,  at  the  ends  of  the  car  were  used  for  lateral  steering ; 
a  single  propeller  at  the  stern  for  vertical  steering. 


envelope  a  number  of  aero- 
planes, upon  which  devolves 
part  of  the  duty  of  raising  the 
airship  from  the  ground  and 
keeping  it  aloft.  This  par- 
ticular airship  is,  in  fact,  not 
a  true  "  ship,"  as  it  does  not 
float  by  its  own  buoyancy. 
For  lateral  steering  one  or 
more  vertical  rudders  placed 
near  the  stern  are  used. 


soon  as  it  attained  a  certain  speed.  To  ob- 
viate this  tendency  he  attached  horizontal,  fin- 
like planes  to  the  tail,  a  prac- 
tice which  has  been  followed 
in  more  recent  designs.  The  French  Ville 
de  Paris  and  Clement- Bayard  have,  instead 
of  planes,  small  ballonets,  cylindrical  in  the 
first  case,  pear-shaped  in  the  second.  (See  the 
illustrations  on  pages  58  and  57  respectively.) 
Pitching  arises  from  irregularities  in  pressure 
and  the  presence  of  ascending  or  descending 
air  currents,  from  the  leakage  of  gas,  and  the 
shifting  of  the  dead  or  the  live  load.  The 
lower  the  centre  of  gravity  is  kept  the  less  will 
the  pitching  be.  Movable  weights  for  correct- 
ing the  trim  are  used.  On  the  Gross  airship 
two  ballonets — one  forward  and  the  other  aft 
— are  connected  by  a  pipe  through  which  air 
is  transferred  from  one  to  the  other  to  alter 
the  buoyancy  of  either  end.  As  Moedebeck 
remarks  in  his  Handbook  of  Aeronautics,  the 
maintenance  of  stability  in  long  airships  is 
one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  for  the 
constructor. 

Vertical  steering  is  eflfected  by  the  aid  of 
planes  attached  to  the  balloon  or  the  body, 
and  by  altering  the  longitudinal  trim.  The 
Zeppelin  airships  carry  sets  of 
planes  fore  and  aft,  which,  if 
set  at  an  angle  of  15°  to  the  horizontal,  will 
at  31  miles  an  hour  give  a  lifting  force  of 
nearly  a  ton,  and  enable  a  rapid  ascent  to  be 
made  without  throwing  away  ballast.  The 
French  Malecot  (see  page  47)  has  under  the 

(1,408) 


Steering. 


Qiffard's 
Dirigible. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    AIRSHIP. 

Tlie  first  airship  to  attain  an  independent 
velocity  was  that  built  by  Henry  GifTard,  the 
inventor  of  the  famous  water  injector  now 
commonly  used  for  steam 
boilers,  in  1852.  (Fig.  1.)  It 
was  about  136  feet  long  and 
37  feet  in  diameter,  and  had  a  capacity  of 
2,000  cubic  metres.  Its  weight  was  2,794  lbs., 
its  lifting  capacity  1 J  tons.  The  3  horse-power 
steam-engine  used  to  drive  it  weighed  462  lbs. 
^a  striking  contrast  to  the  light  but  extremely 
powerful  petrol  engine  of  to-daj'.  The  car, 
containing  the  engine,  was  suspended  from  r. 
horizontal  rod  to  which  the  cordage  of  the 
envelope  was  attached.  On  September  24, 
Giffard  made  an  ascent  at  Paris,  and  succeeded 
in  obtaining  a  speed  estimated  vai-iously  at 
4i  and  6 J  miles  an  hour. 


> 


J-'ig.    1. — OIFFAKl/s    DlKltJlBLE    (lf*5;2). 

It  was  propel  le<l  by  a  three  horse-power  steam-engine, 
and  attained  a  speed  of  about  six  niiles  an  heir. 

VOL.  IIL 


DIRIGIBLE    ?>ALLOONS. 


51 


Dupuy  de 
Lome. 


During  the  siege  of  Paris  (1870)  Dupuy  d.^ 
Lome  built  for  the  French  Governmenl 
dirigible  shapod  somewhat  similarly  to  thui 
of  Giffard.  In  place  of  an 
engine  the  muscles  of  eight 
men  were  employed  to  luin 
a  large  screw,  nearly  30  feet  in  diameter, 
about  twenty-eight  times  per  minute.  Tlio 
airship  moved  itself  at  a  low  speed,  but  aj) 
parently  the  inventor  and  the  Government 
did  not  consider  its  behaviour  sufficiently 
satisfactory  to  justify  sending  it  over  the 
beleaguering  German  army. 


Renard  and 

Krebs' 

Dirigible. 


Fig.    2. — RENARD    AND    KREBS'    AIRSHIP    (1884). 

The  first  really  successful  navig<able  balloon.  Propelled  by  electric  motors.  It 
made  several  considerable  voyages  at  a  good  speed.  Highest  velocity  attained, 
about  fourteen  miles  an  hour. 


Passing  over  the  experiments  of  Haenlein 
and  Tissandier,  we  come  to  the  famous  air- 
ship constructed  by  Captains  Renard  and 
Krebs  of  the  French  army  in 
1884  and  1885.  This  balloon 
(Fig.  2)  was  of  more  scientific 
design  than  its  predecessors, 
having  its  largest  diameter  near  the  prow, 
and  tapering  gradually  aft.  The  volume  was 
comparatively  small,  only  1,864  cubic  metres. 
As  motive  power  the  inventors  selected  elec- 
tricity, stored  in  a  battery  of  thirty-two  cells 
of  special  construction,  and  used  in  an  8' 5  horse- 
power motor,  which  revolved  a  23-foot  pro- 
peller thirty  to  forty  times 
a  minute.  Several  successful 
trials  were  carried  out  in 
August,  September,  and  November  1884,  and 
in  August  and  September  of  the  following 
year,  the  highest  speed  attained  being  14  miles 


Successful 
Trials. 


Ill  hour.     The  dirigible  overcame  winds  of  con- 

lerable  strengtli  •  v<'ri 

trials    returned    to    iis    siuiiuig-poiut.     It    is 

somewhat  strange  that   the   Government   did 

lint    (oiniiuK    ox|>eriment8  with  so  efficient  an 

uirship,  which,    in    th.    \\(.i(I<   <.f    Kenard,  had 

■  fiH-nished  the  tirst  proof  of   the    possibility 

of    manoeuvring  a   spindle-shaped   balloon    in 

the  air  ocean    by  means   analogous  to  those 

which  allow    ship.s    to    [Mifon  .    .volutions    in 

the  ocean  of  watei.  " 

During  the  years   IhU.s  u>   llit,.>    ilu-  young 

Brazilian,    Alberto   Santos   Dumont,    designed 

a    series    of    dirigibles.     Henri 

Deutsch,    a    wealthy    member 

of    the   French 

Aero   Club,  of-         ^^"*°^ 
,     .  Dumont. 

fered    in     19()(> 

a  prize  of  £4,000  to  any  one 
who  should  start  from  the 
Aero  Club  park  near  Long- 
champs,  sail  to  and  round  the' 
Eiffel  Tower,  and  return  to 
the  starting-point — a  distance 
of  about  seven  miles— in  less 
than  half  an  hour.  After  several  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  capture  the  prize,  M.  Santos 
Dumont  succeeded,  on  October  19,  1901,  in 
covering  the  stipulated  course  in  a  minute  less 
than  the  limit.  The  airship  used,  his  No.  VI., 
had  a  gas  bag  33  metres  long 
and  6  metres  in  diameter, 
with  a  volume  of  630  cubic 
metres.  An  internal  air  ballonet,  t\'d  hy  a 
pump,  maintained  the  tautness  of  the  en- 
velope. From  the  bag  was  suspended  a  long 
truss  carrying  a  basket-work  car  for  the  aero- 
naut, a  16  horse-power  Buchet  four-cylinder 
motor,  and  at    il  id   a    propeller  four 

metres  long,  made  ot  silk  stretched  tightly 
over  a  rigid  frame.  Steering  was  effected  b}' 
a  vertical  rudder  operated  from  a  wheel  at 
the  front  of  the  ear.  Santos  Dumont's  bal- 
loons, though  not  a  great  advance  on  that  of 
Renard  and   Kreb''.  provefl  the  saiitn^'^'^v  ^f 


The  Deutsch 
Prize  won. 


52 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


STERN    VIEW    OF    "  ZEPPEUX    U."    (ORIGINALLY    NO.    III.)    LEAVING    THE    HUGE    FLOATING    BALLOON 

SHED    AT    FRIEDRICHSHAFEN.  {Photo,  Topical.) 

Observe  the  stability  planes  at  the  side,  the  vertical  steering  rudders  between  them,  and  the  elevating  planes  near  the  keel. 


Count 
Zeppelin's 
Airships. 


the  petrol  motor  for  driving  airships,  and  did 
a  great  deal  tovv^ards  stimulating  public  in- 
terest in  the  possibilities  of  the  dirigible. 

Simultaneously  with  Santos  Dumont's  ex- 
periments at  Paris,  Count  F.  von  Zeppelin 
had  been  busy  at  Friedrichshafen,  on  Lake 
Constance,  with  the  construc- 
tion of  a  monster  dirigible, 
which  is  known  as  Zeppelin  I. 
The  envelope  was  426  feet 
long  and  37  feet  in  diameter,  its  section  being 
that  of  a  twenty-four  sided  prism.  The  frame- 
work w^as  built  of  aluminium  alloy,  and  divided 
into  seventeen  sections  by  cross  partitions  of 
thin  aluminium  sheet,  which  served  to  insulate 
the  seventeen  small  balloons  used  to  give 
buoyancy.  The  space  between  the  balloons 
and  the  outer  covering  of  pegamoid  was  ven- 
tilated by  a  constant  current  of  air  passed 
through.     The  volume   of   the  gas   chambers 


totalled   11,300  cubic  metres;  the  weight,  in- 
cluding petrol  for  a  ten  hours'  flight,  cooling 

water  for  the  engines,  and  a 

en  .        .  Zeppelin  I. 

crew    of    live    men,   ten  tons. 

In  the  long  keel  attached  to  the  under-side  of 

the  framework  were  placed  two  cars,  situated 

about  half-way  between  the  centre  and  the 

ends,    each    carrying    a    14"  7    Daimler   petrol 

motor.     Zeppelin    adopted    two    independent 

motors,  so  that,  if  one  should  fail,  the  other 

would  be  available  for  manoeuvring  the  ship 

and  bringing  it  to  earth,  if  need  be.     Each 

motor  drove  a  pair  of  four-bladed  propellers, 

about   4  feet  in  diameter,   at  the  very  high 

speed  of  1,100  revolutions  per  minute,  through 

bevel  gearing.     Reversing  gear  was  included, 

so   that   the   ship   could  be   moved  astern  if 

occasion    arose.     An    installation    of    electric 

bells,  telegraphs,  and  speaking  tubes  assisted 

the  operations  of  steering. 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


53 


First  Trials. 


On  July  2,  1900,  at  7.30  p.m.,  the  first  trial 
was  made.  At  the  signal  all  ropes  were  re- 
leased, and  the  airship  rose  and  moved  against 
the  wind,  turning  now  to  the 
left,  now  to  the  right,  in  answer 
to  the  movements  of  the  helm.  Unfortunately 
one  of  the  rudder  cables  broke,  and  Zeppelin 
decided  to  descend,  which  he  managed  to  effect 
without  accident.  Further  trials  took  place 
on  October  17  and  21.  During  the  first  of 
these  the  airship  remained  aloft  for  eighty 
minutes  ;  during  the  second  it  attained  an 
independent  velocity  of  twenty  miles  an  hour, 
which  quite  eclipsed  the  performance  of 
Renard's  La  France.  The  tests  served  to 
show  that,  within  the  limits  of  its  speed,  the 
huge  structure  could  be  driven  against  the 
wind,  and  made  to  circle  ;  also  that  the  design 
of  the  framework  needed  modification  to  give 
greater  stiffness. 

The  expense  of  his  experiments  had  ex- 
hausted Zeppelin's  finances,  and  compelled 
him  to  appeal  to  the  public  for  the  means 
with  which  to  continue  his  researches.     But 

times  were  bad,  and  popular 
Zeppelin  //.     .   ,        ,   .  ,.         ^ 

interest  in  aeronautics  was  as 

yet  unawakened.  So  four  years  passed  before 
he  had  collected  sufficient  money  to  construct 
Zeppelin  II.  This  airship  had  a  somewhat 
larger  volume  than  its  predecessor,  but  was 
much  better  engined,  two  90  horse-power  Mer- 
cedes motors  taking  the  place  of  the  two  14' 7 
horse-power  Daimlers,  Also,  the  workmanship 
and  design  showed  a  decided  advance.  For 
ascensional  purposes,  two  vertical  screws, 
each  giving  a  lift  of  240  lbs.,  were  provided. 

The  trials,  made  early  in  1906,  showed  that 
the  new  craft  was  much  faster  than  Zeppelin 
I.,  but  that  it  lacked  longitudinal  stability. 
On  the  last  trip  the  steering 
gear  and  the  motors  failed  to 
act,  the  airship  began  to  drift  before  the 
wind,  and  a  descent  had  to  be  made  into  a 
meadow.  During  the  night,  however,  a  gale 
arose,  drove  the  airship  against  a  tree,  and 


A  Disaster. 


Zeppelin  IV. 


in  a  few  minutes  had  reduced  it  to  a  com- 
plete wreck. 

Count  von  Zeppelin  announced  his  intention 
to  retire  from  the  field  after  this  disaster,  but 
was  persuaded  by  the  Government  to  per- 
sist. Within  nine  months  he 
had  Zeppelin  III.  afloat.  This  ^^^^ 
had  nearly  4,000  cubic  metres  more  volume 
than  No.  II.,  being  of  larger  diameter  and 
length.  Two  1 10  horse-power  motors  supplied 
the  driving  power.  The  balloon  itself  had 
sixteen  sides  only,  instead  of  the  twenty-four 
sides  used  previously,  as  the  reduction  of 
number  facilitated  construction. 

On  trial  the  Zeppelin  III.  proved  a  great 
success,  carrying  eleven  passengers  sixty-nine 
miles  in  2  hours  17  minutes  at  an  average 
speed  of  35  miles  an  hour. 
The  Government  now  came 
forward  with  the  offer  to  purchase  an  airship 
for  £100,000  if  it  could  make  a  continuous 
flight  of  twenty-four  hours,  and  land  safely. 
Accordingly,  Zeppelin  busied  himself  on  the 
construction  of  No.  IV.,  wherewith  to  fulfil 
the  conditions  laid  down.  This  ship  was 
ready  by  the  beginning  of  June  1908.  On 
July  1  she  left  Friedrichshafen,  and  travelled 
westwards  along  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Con- 
stance towards  Schaffhausen.  Just  before 
reaching  this  town  she  turned  southwards  and 
made  for  town  and  lake  of  Lucerne,  round  which 
she  passed  without  difficulty.  Thence  the 
course  was  set  northwards  to  Zurich,  and,  after 
that    city    had    been    passed, 

eastwards     over     Suleen    and    _    ,'*'  .^^^. 
^  ,  ,      ^  ,    Switzerland. 

Romanshorn  to  the  east  end 

of  Lake  Constance,  and  so  back  to  the  great 

flouting  shed  at  Friedrichshafen.     A  distance 

of  236  miles  had  been  covered  in  twelve  hours 

— an  average  of   18J  miles  an  hour — without 

mishap  of  any  kind.     The  world  was  electrified 

by  a  performance  which  threw  complete!}'  into 

the  shade  all  previous  achievements  of  dirigibles. 

On  Tuesday,  August  4,   1908,  Zepi)eUn  set 

out  on  his  first  attempt  to  win  the  Govern- 


m 
W 
O 

iJ 

H 

o 

H 

03 
H 
W 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


55 


ment  subsidy  with  a  twenty-four  hours'  flight. 
Following  the  course  of  the  Rhine,  the  air- 
ship passed  Basle,  Miilhauson, 

A  Fine  Strassburg,  Mannheim,  and 
Voyage  ends  ,     i  ,,  .  ,, 

in  Disaster.  r®^°^®^  Mainz,  after  a  voyage 
lasting  16  hours  40  minutes. 
After  a  descent  to  make  some  trifling 
repairs,  the  homeward  journey  began.  The 
great  envelope  had,  however,  developed 
leaks,  which,  coupled  with  irregular  working 
of  the  motors,  compelled  the  count  to  descend 
at  Echterdingen,  near  Stuttgart.  While  the 
balloons  were  being  inflated  a  squall  struck 
the  ship,  and  bumped  it  violently  against  the 
ground.  Some  petrol  ignited,  and  in  a  moment 
the  conflagration  had  reached  the  highly  in- 
flammable hydrogen  in  the  balloons.  A  few 
minutes  sufficed  to  destroy  the  work  of  months. 

This  heavy  misfortune,  coming  on  the  top 
of  a  great  triumph,  roused  the  patriotism  of 
Germany  in  a  manner  that  may  serve  as  an 
object  lesson  to  other  nations.  Within  a  few 
weeks  £300,000  were  subscribed  to  enable  the 
aged  Count  to  build  yet  more  Zeppelins  for 
the  use  of  his  countrymen. 

Zeppelin  III.  was  taken  in  hand,  increased 
as  to  its  length  and  carrying  power  by  the 
addition  of  one  more  balloon,  renamed  Zeppe- 
lin II.,  and,  after  some  very  successful  tests, 
taken  to  Metz  to  form  a  unit  in  the  aerial  fleet 
that  now  has  its  headquarters  on  the  frontier. 

Zeppelin   II.   (new  style)   is   the  same  size 

as  No.  IV.,  and  has  to  its  credit  the  longest 

of  all  airship  voyages.     On  May  29,  at  9.42 

p.m.,    it    left    Friedrichshafen, 

A  Record       ^^^^^  ^^^j^  g^^  almost  direct  line 


Journey  of 
over  6oo  miles. 


for  Berlin,   360  miles  distant. 

The  huge  dirigible  passed  over 
Ulm,  Nuremberg,  Bayreuth,  Plauen,  and 
Leipzig.  At  the  last-named  place  Zeppelin 
threw  over  a  telegram  addressed  to  the  em- 
peror, expressing  his  hopes  that  ho  might  be 
able  to  reach  Berlin,  only  125  miles  away, 
that  day.  The  news  spread  through  Berlin 
like  wildfire  ;   the  whole  population  turned  out 


Collision  with 
a  Tree. 


to  welcome  the  Count.  But  a  northerly  breeze 
arose  and  developed  steadily  into  so  high  a 
wind  that  Zeppelin,  on  reaching  Bitterfeld, 
decided  to  turn  the  airsliip  about  and  run 
southwards.  Late  in  the  evening  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Halle  and  Weimar  saw  Zeppelin  II. 
pass  overhead.  By  4.45  next  morning  she 
reached  Wiirzburg.  Five  hours  later  she  was 
circling  the  spire  of  Stuttgart  Cathedral. 
The  ship  then  proceeded  to  Kirchheim,  where 
the  petrol  supply  began  to  show  signs  of  ex- 
haustion. At  Goppingen  a  descent  was  de- 
cided upon.  During  an  attempt  to  land,  the 
airship  was  caught  by  a  squall 
and  driven  violently  against  a 
tree,  which  smashed  in  her 
bows  and  held  her  prisoner,  her  stern  floating 
well  above  the  ground.  Thus  ended  a  38-hour 
journey,  during  which  well  over  600  miles — 
some  calculations  make  the  figures  950,  but 
this  is  probably  excessive — had  been  covered. 
Even  the  records  of  Zeppelin  IV.  had  "  gone  by 
the  board."  Though  this  remarkable  achieve- 
ment also  ended  in  disaster,  after  temporary 
repair  the  airship  was  able  to  make  its  way, 
with  but  one  rudder  running,  to  Friedrichs- 
hafen, where,  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  it 
was  put  into  good  running  order  again. 

The  latest  of  the  Zeppelins,  No.  IIL,  has 
three  motors  of  150  horse-power  each,  but  has 
not,  up  to  the  time  of  writing,  performed  any 
sensational  feat.  In  general  features  the 
Zeppelin  type  has  not  undergone  much  altera- 
tion. Power,  volume,  and  lifting  capacity 
have  been  increased,  the  steering  apparatus  has 
been  improved,  and  great  accommodation  for 
the  crew  provided.  The  rigid,  subdivided 
gas-holder  is  retained,  despite  the  criticisms 
of  the  "  non-rigid  "  school.  Count  von  Zep- 
pelin has  boundless  faith  in  his  own  invention. 
So  far  from  being  discouraged  by  the  mishaps 
which  must  be  expected  to  occur  while  the 
lessons  of  aeronautics  are  being  learnt,  he  has 
propounded  a  scheme  for  running  regular 
airship    services,    as    a    commercial    venture. 


56 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


TUK    I'UENOH    DIHIOIHLE    "  ZODIAC    111." 


{Photo,  Topical.) 


The  pipo  (111(1  j)ii?np  for  kooping  tho  internal  air-hallonot  inflated  are  noticeable  features.     Elevato<l  planes  moiintod 
on  front  of  tho  car.     Rudder  attaclied  to  undor-8ide  of  tho  balloon.     Non-rigid  type. 


botweon  Berlin  and  Coponliagen,  Stettin, 
liixnncMi,  Cologne,  Stuttgart,  and  other  im- 
portant centres,  besides  pleasure  trips  down 
the  Rhine  into  Switzerland. 


FR1^]N('I1     DIliKilBLKS. 

The  Lchaudy  airship,  built   by  JuUiot    and 

Surcouf  in    1902,   is   of   the   semi-rigid    type, 

with  a  keel-shaped  floor  made  of  steel  tubes. 

Length,  56*5  metres  ;    greatest 

^,     .  .       ^  diameter,  9*8  metres  ;  volume, 
Airship. 

2,784  metres.     The  car  is  slung 

from  the  floor  by  steel  rods.  A  40  horse-power 
motor  operates  two  screws,  one  on  either  side 
of  the  car,  each  9  feet  in  diameter.  With  the 
engine  running  at  1,050  revolutions  a  minute, 
the  thrust  of  tho  propellers  totals  350  lbs.  ,  In 
1002,  1903,  and  1905  the  Lebaudy  made  many 
successful  trips,  ranging  up  to  nearly  100  kilo- 
metres. The  airship  behaved  so  satisfac- 
torily— especially  after  certain  alterations  and 
improvements  had  been  carried  out — that  it 


The  Patrie 

and 
Republique. 


was  finally  adopted  for  the  French  army,  and 
is  still  in  commission. 

Two  other  dirigibles.  La  Patrie  and  La  R4- 
jmhlique,  were  subsequently  constructed  on 
Lebaudy  lines.  The  Patrie  delighted  the  Pari- 
sians in  1907  by  a  number  of 
evolutions  over  the  capital, 
and  at  the  end  of  November 
made  a  memorable  voyage  of 
230  kilometres  from  Paris  to  Verdun,  near  the 
German  frontier.  Only  140  out  of  the  190 
litres  of  petrol,  and  but  a  small  part  of  the 
ballast,  w(Te  used,  so  that  the  journey  could 
have  been  extended  for  many  miles.  During, 
part  of  the  trip  the  elevation  was  about  3,000 
feet.  (A  few  days  before  the  start  the  Patrie 
had  proved  her  ability  to  rise  1,300  metres,  or 
4,300  feet,  the  record  at  that  time  for  dirigibles.) 
Shortly  after  arriving  at  Verdun,  the  Patrie 
was  overtaken  by  a  gale  while  at  anchor.  A 
large  body  of  soldiers  detached  to  hold  her 
down  kept  her  captive  for  some  hours.  Then 
she  broke  away  and  was  swept  into  the  clouds,; 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


57 


Details  of 
the  Pat  He. 


travelling  north-westwards  at  a  high  speed. 
Probably  she  passed  over  England  and  Ireland, 
and  fell  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Some  details  of  this  airship  will  l)e  of  in- 
terest. Length,  197  feet ;  maximum  diameter, 
33}  feet;  volume,  111,250  cubic  feet;  stern 
provided  with  an  empennage 
(or  feathering,  like  that  of 
an  arrow)  of  two  vertical 
and  two  horizontal  planes,  to  maintain  sta- 
bility ;  ballonet,  having  capacity  of  one-fifth 
of  the  total  volume,  divided  into  three  com- 
partments by  perforated  partitions  to  prevent 
surging  of  the  air  to  and  fro  ;  boat-shaped 
car,  16  by  5  by  2^  feet,  attached  by  triangu- 
lated steel  cables  to  the  rigid  frame  under  the 
gas-bag,  the  two  last  being  held  together  by 
a  net  ;  frame  easily  released  from  net,  and 
taken  to  pieces  for  transport  ;  car  furnished 
with  pyramidal  sub-structure  to  take  the 
shock  of  landing.  A  motor  of  70  horse-power 
drove  two  steel  propellers,  8  J  feet  in  diameter. 


and  mounted  on  each  side  of  the  car,  at  1,000 
or  more  revolutions  per  minute.  The  frame 
carried  vertical  and  horizontal  stabilizing 
planes  and  a  vertical  rudder,  and  a  movable 
horizontal  plane  was  fixed  above  the  car  to 
cause  ascent  and  descent  without  loss  of  gas 
or  ballast. 

The  liejmbliqu(  was  wvy  siniiiur  to  the 
Patrie.  It  had  2,000  cubic  feet  more  volume, 
but  a  somewhat  less  powerful  motor.  It  made 
some  very  good  flights,  and 
took  part  in  the  French  army 
manoeuvres  of  1909.  While 
returning  from  these  to  Chalais  Meudon,  she 
was  destroyed  by  a  propeller  blade  coming 
adrift  and  splitting  the  balloon.  The  airship 
fell  700  feet,  and  her  crew  of  four  men  were 
killed  instantaneously. 

La  Ville  de  Paris  belongs  to  the  non-rigid 
class.  Built  in  1906  by  Surcouf.  Length, 
200  feet  ;  maximum  diameter,  34  J  feet  ; 
volume,    3,200    cubic    metres.     The   ballonet 


The 
Republique. 


THE  "  CLEMENT-BAYARD  I.   ENTERING  ITS  SHED. 

Obncrvo  the  great  stabilizing  ballonets  at  the  stern. 


{Photo,  Topical.) 


58 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


FRENCH    NON-RIGil'    Ail:    liii  \ILL£    I'L    i'Aia.-.  LARGE    TRACTOR    SCREW    IN    FRONT. 

Length,  62  metres ;  greatest  diameter,  10'5  metres ;  volume,  3,200  cubic  metres ;  horse-power  of  motor,  70. 

{Photo,  Topical.] 


The  Ville 
de  Paris. 


is  divided  fore  and  aft  into  three  compart- 
ments by  curtains  of  permeable  cloth,  not 
fixed  at  the  bottom,  so  that 
when  the  ballonet  is  distended 
air  can  pass  easily  from  one 
compartment  to  another.  The  car  is  very 
long  and  heavy,  and  is  attached  to  the  gas- 
bag by  a  number  of  ropes  running  to  canvas 
bands  sewn  to  the  side  of  the  bag.  This 
"  long  "  suspension  gives  a  good  distribution 
of  weight.  A  single  propeller  of  large  diameter 
is  mounted  at  the  front  of  the  car,  and  driven 
by  a  75  horse-power  motor  at  980  revolutions 
per  minute.  The  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  Ville  de  Paris  is  the  eight  small  cylinders, 
arranged  in  groups  of  two,  which  take  the 
place  of  the  vertical  and  horizontal  stability 
planes  of  the  Patrie.  Their  weight  is  exactly 
equal  to  the  buoyancy  of  the  gas  which  they 
contain,  so  that  they  have  no  ascensional 
effect.     They  are  said  to  serve  their  purpose 


Climent- 
Bayard  I. 


very  well,  but,  in  spite  of  their  conical  for- 
ward ends,  cause  a  drag  which  militates 
against  high  speed. 

The  Clement-Bayard  I.,  designed  by  M.  A. 
Clement,  the  founder  of  the  famous  French 
motor-car  firm,  was  completed  in  1908.  Length, 
56*25  metres  ;  maximum  di- 
ameter, 10"58  metres  ;  volume, 
3,500  cubic  metres.  The  bag 
has  at  the  tail  four  large  pear-shaped  gas 
ballonets,  which  communicate  with  the  main 
bag  through  holes  pierced  in  the  envelope. 
The  air  ballonet  is  unusually  large,  and  has 
a  volume  of  1,100  cubic  metres.  The  car  is 
built  of  steel  tubes,  and  covered  with  cloth 
and  aluminium  sheeting.  The  vertical  rudder 
has  two  parallel  planes  of  steel  ;  the  hori- 
zontal rudder  three  superposed  planes,  with 
a  total  surface  of  16  square  metres,  and  is  set 
slightly  forward  of  the  centre  of  gravity. 
Both    rudders    are    balanced    and     operated 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


59 


Clement - 
Bayard  II. 


through  steel  cables  by  irreversible  tillers. 
To  diminish  vibration,  and  to  enable  the 
instruments  in  the  car  to  be  road  more  easily, 
the  engine  is  mounted  on  a  system  of  springs. 
The  Ville  de  Bordeaux  and  Colonel  Renard 
have  the  same  general  features  as  the  Clement- 
Bayard  I.  The  Clement-Bayard  II.,  built  for 
trial  in  England,  is  the  largest 
of  all  non-rigid  airships.  It 
measures  300  feet  from  stem 
to  stern,  and  has  a  volume  of  6,300  cubic 
metres.  The  bag  has  a  blunt  nose  and  a  long 
conical  body  and  tail.  In  place  of  the  sta- 
bilizing ballonets  of  Clement-Bayard  I.,  slie 
carries  a  vertical  plane  under  the  tail.  Close 
to  this  is  the  vertical  rudder  for  lateral  steer- 
ing. To  distribute  the  weight  of  the  engines, 
passengers,  etc.,  a  car  140  feet  long  is  slung 
from  the  gas  chamber.  About  one-third  of  it 
is  available  for  the  engines  and  living  freight. 


The  Clement- Bayard  II.  is  engined  with  two 
220  horse-power  motors  set  amidships  to  drive 
a  couple  of  two-bladed  wooden  propellers,  20 
feet  in  diameter,  mounted  on  either  side  of 
the  car,  and  revolving  in  opposite  directions. 
The  lifting  power  of  the  airship  is  sufficient 
to  raise  twenty-five  passengers  and  enough 
petrol  for  a  six  or  seven  hundred-mile  journey. 
It  is  expected  that  a  speed  of  at  least  35 
miles  an  hour  will  be  attained.  This  airship 
will  be  the  great  rival  of  the  Zeppelins  ;  her  car- 
rying power,  speed,  and  radius  of  action  should 
prove  as  great,  and  she  may  show  herself 
superior  as  regards  alighting  and  manoeuvring. 

In  Crcrmany  it  is  recognized  that,  though 
the  Zeppelin  type  may  have  decided  advan- 
tages for  long  trips,  smaller  dirigibles  with 
collapsible  gas  chambers  are  more  suitable 
for    military    purposes.      The    first    non-rigid 


GERMAN    NON-RIGID    "  PARSEVAL    II."    FLYING    OVER    THE    TEGELEK    GROUNDS. 


{I'lioto,  Topical.) 


Note  the  hemispherical  prow  and  conical  stern.  This  balloon  has  two  internal  ballonets,  and  a  pump  for  transferring  air 
from  one  to  the  other  to  regulate  the  longitudinal  trim.  Length,  58  metres;  greatest  diameter,  9'5  metres;  volume,  3,800 
metres;  horse- power  of  motor,  114. 


TAKING    OBSERVATIONS    FROM    A    MILITARY    DIRIGIBLE    BALLOON. 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


Gl 


German  dirigible,  Parseval  I.,  appeared  in 
1906.  It  had  a  hemispherical  prow  and  a 
conical  stern.  Two  air  ballonets 
are  used,  one  at  each  end,  to 
control  the  longitudinal  trim 
of  the  gas  chamber.  For  ascending,  the  rear 
ballonot  is  filled  and  the  front  ballonet  emptied, 
throwing  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  gas  for- 


Parseval. 


with  lead.  When  at  rest  the  blades  hang  limp, 
but  are  stiffened  by  centrifugal  force  when 
revolving.  Weight  is  reduced  considerably 
by  this  system  of  blading.  Larger  and  more 
efficient  Parsevals  were  built  in  1908  and  the 
present  year.  Parseval  II.  is  58  metres  long, 
has  a  volume  of  3,800  cubic  metres,  and 
carries  a  114  horse-power  engine. 


GROSS    II.,"    THE    GERMAN    SEMI-RIGID    MILITARY    AIRSHIP,    IN    FLIGHT.  (Pholo,  Topical.) 

In  general  outline  it  closely  resembles  the  Parseval,  but  is  distingiiishetl  by  the  girder  keel  from  whieh  the  car  is 
suspended.     Tliis  ship  was  used  during  the  German  army  manoeuvres  of  September. 


ward,  and  causing  the  prow  to  rise  and  give 
the  under  surface  of  the  bag  somewhat  of  an 
aeroplane  effect.  For  descending  the  process 
is  reversed. 

Two  other  interesting  points  are  the  car 
suspension  and  the  propeller.  The  car  has  two 
pulley  wheels  on  each  side  at  the  floor  level, 
round  which  pass  steel  cables  to  the  ropes 
distributing  the  weight  over  the  whole  length 
of  the  gas-bag.  This  arrangement  allows  the 
car  to  adjust  its  position  in  accordance  with 
variations  of  the  screw  thrust  and  air  pressure. 
The  propeller  has  four  blades  of  cloth  weighted 


The  Gross 
Airships. 


The  Gross  I.,  launched  in  1907,  is  a  semi- 
rigid dirigible,  with  spherical  prow  and  stern. 
The  latest  Gross  has  a  volume  of  5,000  cubic 
metres,  and  includes  two  air 
ballonets.  The  two  3-bladed 
propellers  revolve  in  the  same 
direction.  At  the  rear,  horizontal  planes  are 
used  for  stability.  We  may  note  that  the 
inventor.  Von  Gross,  has  abandoned  the  hemi- 
spherical in  favour  of  the  conical  stern. 

In  America  the  Baldwin  airship  has  achieved 
considerable   success,   and   has   been   adopted 


62 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


by  the  United  States  army.  It  has  a  pointed 
stem  and  stern  ;  a  long  car  attached  close 
to  the  gas-holder ;  elevating 
planes  at  the  fore  end,  and 
a  vertical  rudder  at  the  rear 
of  the  car  ;  and  a  single  tractor  screw.  On 
its  official  trials  this  airship  made  an  in- 
dependent speed  of  nearly  20  miles  an  hour. 


The  Baldwin 
Airship. 


DIAGRAM    TO    SHOW    THE    METHOD    USED    FOR    SUS- 
PENDING   THE    CAR    OF    "  PARSEVAL    II." 
The  cords  pass  round  rollers  which  allow  the  car  to  retain 
its  horizontal  position  when  the  balloon  tilts. 

The  list  of  the  world's  airships  cannot  be 
made  complete,  as  at  the  time  of  writing 
many  dirigibles  are  in  course  of  construction 
or  on  trial  for  all  the  great  Powers.  In  Eng- 
land a  huge  rigid  airship  is  being  built  at 
Barrow.  The  Germans  have  a  dozen  or  more 
in  hand.  Russia,  Japan,  Italy,  Belgium, 
Austria,  Spain,  and  the  United  States  are  all 
busy. 

The  Continental  Tyre  Company's  fabric  is 

most  commonly  employed  for  the  gas  chambers 

of  dirigibles.     It  is  built  up  of  four  layers. 

Beginning  on  the  outside,  we 

^  „  have — (1)  Layer  of  cotton  cloth 

for  Balloons.  \  ^      j 

impregnated  with  yellow  chro- 

mate  of  lead  to  keep  out  the  actinic  (blue  to 

ultra-violet)  rays  of  the  sun,  which  do  damage 

to   rubber  ;     (2)   layer    of   vulcanized   rubber 

sheeting  to  retain  the  gas  ;   (3)  layer  of  cotton 

cloth  to  reinforce  that  on  the   outside  ;    (4) 

thin    layer   of  vulcanized    rubber   to   protect 

the  cotton  against  the  chemical  action  of  the 

hydrogen    gas.     In    the    Gross    airships    this 

layer  is  dispensed  with. 

The  four-layer  fabric  weighs  slightly  under 


ten  ounces  per  square  yard.  A  strip  one  foot 
wide  will  bear  a  strain  up  to  950  lbs.  before 
tearing.  The  two  layers  of  cotton  cloth  are 
laid  diagonally  to  one  another,  so  that  the 
warp  of  the  one  may  resist  ripping  in  the  weft 
of  the  other,  and  localize  injuries  to  the  fabric. 

Nulli  Secundus  II.,  the  very  moderately 
successful  British  army  airship,  had  a  bag 
built  up  of  many  layers  of  gold-beater's  skin, 
a  very  tough  and  impermeable  but  also  very 
expensive  material. 

There  is  no  denying  the  fact  that,  whereas 
the  development  of  and  interest  in  the  flying 
machine  have  been  due  largely  to  what  one 
may  call  the  sporting  instinct. 


The  Dirigible 
in  Warfare. 


the  dirigible  balloon  is  con- 
sidered primarily  to  be  an 
instrument  of  war.  The  value  of  being  able 
to  see  and  give  information  of  what  the  enemy 
is  doing,  without  incurring  great  risks,  is  of 
such  value  to  a  military  commander  that  in 
the  next  great  war  the  dirigible  balloon  will 
certainly  be  very  fully  tested.  In  rough 
weather  it  will  be  of  no  more  use  than  the 
ordinary  spherical  balloon  ;  but  that  fact  will 
not  prevent  its  being  kept  ready  for  ascent 
under  favourable  conditions.  As  for  the 
danger  from  gun  fire,  this  would  be  minimized 
by  rising  to  great  heights  ;  and  one  cannot 
imagine  a  dirigible  being  employed  that  was 
not  capable  of  ascending  5,000  to  6,000  feet 
above  the  earth's  surface,  if  it  had  to  be  sent 
directly  over  the  enemy's  position.  Even  a 
much  less  height  would  allow  its  passengers 
to  make  observations,  while  keeping  out  of 
range.  In  the  grim  business  of  war  bold 
spirits  would  not  be  wanting  to  take  heavy 
risks  on  the  chance  of  winning  through — to 
play  the  counterpart  of  the  naval  scout.  For 
several  years  to  come,  however,  the  dirigible 
will  be  used  for  observation  only,  not  for 
dropping  explosives  or  incendiary  substances. 
Possibly  a  dirigible  may  have  to  attack  the 
air  craft  of  the  opposing  forces,  and  to  that 
end  might  be  furnished  with  small  guns  ;   but 


DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


63 


it  would  take  no  part  as  com- 
batant in  a  general  engagement. 
As  for  aerial  invasions  —  great 
numbers  of  men  wafted  through 
the  air  on  to  the  enemy's  country 
— they  will  not  happen  for  many 
years  to  come. 

The  military  value  of  airships 
was  tested  at  this  year's  ma- 
noeuvres of  the  French  and  Ger- 
man armies,  La  Eepublique  and 
Gross  II.  being  selected  for  the 
purpose  by  the  respective  Govern- 
ments. The  Gross  II.  got  within 
rifle  range,  and  was  ruled  out  of 
action,  but  subsequently  was  "  re- 
stored "  to  her  side  and  did  good 
work.  Tlie  Repuhlique  managed 
to  get  over  the  "  enemy  "  during 
a  thick  mist,  and  when  the  latter 
cleared  away,  and  while  the 
troops  below  were  gaping  in 
astonishment,  feeling  like  par- 
tridges under  a  hawk,  those  on 
board  the  airship  took  full  and 
accurate  notes  of  the  disposition 
of  the  attacking  force  and  sailed 
away. 

The  flying  machine  has  also  to  be  taken 
into  consideration.  When  it  is  able  to  rise 
to  heights  comparable  with  those  of  a  balloon, 
and  maintain  its  elevation  for  an  hour  or  two 
at  a  stretch,  it  will  be  practically  safe.  Its 
small  size  and  speed  will  render  the  chances 
of  its  being  hit,  even  by  guns  that  could  reach 
it,  quite  negligible.  We  may  fitly  close  this 
side  of  the  subject  with  the  weighty  words  of 
Sir  Hiram  Maxim  :    "  The  value  of  a  successful 


ENGINES    OF         ZODIAC    III. 


(Photo,  Topical.) 


flying  machine,  when  considered  from  a  purely 
military  standpoint,  cannot  be  over-estimated. 
The  flying  machine  [we  may  add  the  navigable 
balloon]  has  come  to  stay,  and  whether  we 
like  it  or  not,  it  is  a  problem  that  must  be 
taken  into  serious  consideration.  If  we  are  lag- 
gards, we  shall  unquestionably  be  left  behind, 
with  a  strong  probability  that  before  many 
years  have  passed  over  our  heads  we  shall  have 
to  change  the  colouring  of  our  school  maps." 


64 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


RECORDS   OF   DIRIGIBLE    BALLOONS. 


Date. 

Name. 

Place. 

Type. 

Duration  of 
Flight. 

Distance.                          Kemarks 

t 

1852 

Sept.  2-t. 

Giffard's. 

Paris. 

Non-rigid. 

Velocity,  5  miles  per  hour. 
First  power  -  driven 
dirigible. 

1884. 

Aug.  9. 

La  France. 
(Renard  &  Krebs.) 

Meudon,  France. 

" 

First  practical  dirigible  to 
return  to  starting-point. 
Velocity,  10  miles  per 
hour. 

1885. 

Sept.  23. 

>» 

»j 

„ 

Velocity,  14  miles  per  hour. 

1898. 

July  2. 

Zeppelin  I. 

Friedrichshafen, 
Germany. 

Rigid. 

1   hr.   20  min. 



Velocity,  16  miles  per  hour. 

1902. 

Oct.  19. 

Santos  Dumont  VI. 

Paris. 

Non-rigid. 

30  min.  40  sec. 

7  miles. 

Circled  Eiffel  Tower;  won 
Deutsch  Prize. 

1903. 

May  8. 

Lebaudy. 

Moisson,  France. 

Semi-rigid. 

1   hr.   36  min. 

23  miles. 

Velocity,  about  20  miles  per 
hour. 

May  15. 

»• 

»> 

1   hr.   41   min. 

38i  miles. 

June  24. 

„ 

2  hr.   46  min. 

60  miles. 

„ 

1905. 

July  3. 

" 

Moisson — Meaux. 

" 

2  hr.   37  min. 

89  miles. 

First  stage  on  journey  to 
eastern  frontier. 

July  4. 

" 

Meaux — Sept 
Sorts. 

" 

47  niin. 

11  miles. 

Second  stage  on  journey  to 
eastern  frontier. 

July  6. 

»♦ 

Sept  Sorts — 
Chalons. 

" 

3  hr.   25  min. 

61  miles. 

Third  stage  on  journey  to 
eastern  frontier.  Bal- 
loon collided  with  a 
tree,  and  was  destroyed. 

Nor.  10. 

ft 

Toul,  France. 

„ 

Reached  height  of  4,500  ft. 

1908. 

Oct.  10. 

Zeppelin  III. 

Friedrichshafen. 

Rigid. 

2  hr.   17  min. 

69  miles. 

1907. 

Sept.  30. 

^^ 

99 

j^ 

8  hr.            211  miles. 

Velocity,  35  miles  per  hour. 

Oct.  5. 

Nulli  Secundua. 

Aldershbt — London. 

Non-rigid. 

3  hr.  25  min. 

50  miles. 

Velocity,  12  miles  per  hour. 

Oct.  28 

Parseval  I. 

Berlin. 

»> 

6  hr.   25  min. 

Oct.  28 

Gross  I. 

J, 

Semi-rigid. 

8  hr.    10  min. 

Nov.  23 

La  Patrie. 

Paris — Verdun. 

,, 

6  hr.   45  min. 

146  miles. 

Velocity,  26  miles  per  hour 

1908. 

Jan.  15. 

Ville  de  Paris. 

jj 

Non-rigid. 

7  hr.  6  min. 

146  miles. 

July  1. 

Zeppelin  IV. 

Friedrichshafen. 

Rigid. 

12  hr. 

236  miles. 

Circular  journey  over  Swit- 
zerland. 

Aug.  4. 

" 

Friedrichshafen — 
OppenheinL 

" 

11  hr.  (first 
stage  only). 

258  miles. 

Destroyed  at  Echterdingen 
on  way  back  to  base. 

Sept.  11. 

Gross  II. 

Tegel — Magdeburg 
— Tegel. 

Semi-rigid. 

13  hjr.  15  min. 

176  miles. 

Reached  height  of  4,000  ft. 

Sept.  15. 

Parseval  II. 

,, 

Non-rigid. 

11  hr.  32  min. 

157  miles. 

Oct.  6. 

Lebaudy. 

Moisson. 

Semi-rigid 

Reached  height  of  over 
5,000  ft. 

Oct.  22. 

Parseval  II. 

Tegel. 

Non-rigid. 

Maintained  height  of  5,000 

1909. 

ft.  for 'over  an  hour. 

May  29-31. 

Zeppelin  II.   (New). 

Friedrichshafen — 
Bitterfeld— Gop- 
pingen. 

Rigid. 

37  hr.  40  min. 

603  miles. 

Record  duration  and  dis- 
tance. On  landing,  the 
dirigible  was  damaged, 
but  continued  its  jour- 
ney to  Friedrichshafen. 

Aug.  4. 

Gross  II. 

Berlin — Apolda 
— Berlin. 

Semi-rigid. 

16  hr. 

290  miles. 

Aug.  23. 

Clement- Bayard. 

Sartrouville,  France. 

Non-rigid. 

Remained  for  two  hours  at 
height  of  over  4,000  ft. 

[We  have  pleasure  in  acknowledging  the  help  given  in  the  preparation  of  these  artides 

on  aeronautics  by  the  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain ;  Mr.  T.  W. 

Clarice;  and  Mr.  H.  Ledeboer,  Editor  of  "Aeronautics."] 


HARBOUR  CONSTRUCTION— LOWERING  A  HUGE  CONCRETE  BLOCK. 


Breakwaters. 


IN  a  previous  article  (Vol.  I.,  p.  370  foil.) 
has  been  described,  the  extremely  ar- 
duous work  of  the  lighthouse  engineer 
and  the  nature  of  the  terrific  destructive  forces 
with  which  he  has  to  contend.  Another 
branch  of  marine  engineering,  that  of  harbour 
construction,  is  beset  with  the  same  diffi- 
culties, though  possibly  in  not  so  aggravated 
a  form,  as  harbour  works  are  not  so  isolated 
as  the  rocks  on  which  lighthouses  have  to  be 
raised. 

We  are  concerned  here  primarily  with  works 
carried  out  to  oppose  the  violence  of  the 
waves,  and  to  render  safe  for  shipping  areas 
of  water  which,  but  for  some 
such  protection,  would  be 
utterly  unsuitable  for  anchorage  in  bad 
weather.  Tlie  breakwater  is  a  mere  barrier, 
either  reducing  the  size  of  a  wave  or  checking 
its  progress  altogether.  Its  shape  and  char- 
acter depend  partly  on  the  conditions  of  the 
site,  partly  on  the  work  for  which  it  is  de- 
signed. It  may  be  either  an  artificial  bank 
of  rubble  with  long  slopes  paved  on  the  top  ; 
or  a  rubble  mound  brought  up  to  within  a 
few  feet  of  low-water  level  at  spring  tides, 
and  capped  with  a  built  pier ;  or  a  more  or 
less  vertical  wall  based  upon  the  sea  bottom. 
The  breakwaters  of  Plymouth,  Portland,  and 
Dover  Harbours  respectively  are  good  ex- 
amples of  the  three  types.  We  may  add  that 
different  forms  of  construction  are  found  in 
some  cases  in  one  breakwater  at  different 
depths  of  water.     Thus,  what  begins  at  the 

(1,408) 


shore  end  as  a  wall  built  on  the  bottom  may 

be  given  a  footing  of  rubble,   the  height  of 

which   increases  with  the  declination   of  the 

ground,  as  it  progresses  seawards. 

Before  going  further  into  our  subject,  a  few 

words  on  the  nature  of  waves  will  be  of  value. 

There    are   two   main    orders   of   waves  :     ( 1 ) 

waves  of  translation,  in  which 

the  bulk  of  water  moves  bodily         Waves : 

,,        ,.       ,.  J.    ,,  their  Motion 

m  the  direction  of  the  wave,  .  r- 

'      and   Force. 

as  when  a  wave  breaks  on  the 
beach  ;  (2)  waves  of  oscillation,  in  which  the 
particles  move  vertically  as  well  as  horizon- 
tally, the  motion  being  that  of  a  mass  rolling 
along  a  surface.  Towards  the  top  of  the 
wave  the  particles  move  in  the  direction  of 
the  wave  ;  in  the  trough,  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  motion  is  greater  at  the  crest 
and  in  the  trough  ;  least  at  half  height  of  the 
wave.  The  destructive  power  of  a  "  roller  " 
is  proportionate  to  its  height.  A  wave  thirty 
feet  high  may  produce  a  pressure  of  one  ton 
on  every  square  foot  of  a  surface  opposing  it 
squarely.  Even  much  higher  pressures  have 
been  recorded — nearly  three  tons  per  square 
foot  at  Skerry vore  Lighthouse,  and  three  and 
a  half  tons  at  Dunbar. 

On  entering  shallow  water  a  roller  becomes 
a  wave  of  translation,  and  hurls  itself  horizon- 
tally against  any  obstacle. 

To  rob  a  wave  of  its  onward  movement, 
two  methods,  used  singly  or  in  combination, 
are  employed.  The  first  is  to  offer  a  long 
incline  to  the  wave,  up  which  it  must  rush, 

VOL.    IIL 


CQ 


?»<      2 


HARBOUR    CONSTRUCTION. 


67 


A    HUGE    TITAN    CRAXE    LIFTING    A    :>i)-TON    LOAD. 


{Photo,  Messrs.  Ransomcs  and  Kapkr.) 


Working  radius,  67  feet.     Weight,  320  tons. 


Methods  of 

Wave- 
stopping. 


and  so  expend  its  energy  in  climbing.  When 
its  force  is  exhausted,  the  wave  falls  back  on 
the  slope  and  rushes  down 
again,  its  momentum  assisting 
to  stem  the  violence  of  the 
succeeding  wave.  The  second 
method  is  to  employ  a  more  or  less  vertical  wall, 
which  suddenly  converts  horizontal  into  ver- 
tical motion.  The  wave,  on  reaching  the  face, 
climbs  up  it,  and  then  sinks,  causing  a  sea- 
ward reflection  of  the  undulating  movement. 
The  effects  of  a  wave  are  comparatively 
slight  below  the  trough,  and 
decrease  rapidl}^  with  the 
depth.  Hence  below  low- water 
level  rubble  mounds  can  be  given  a  steep  pitch, 
and  be  made  of  smaller  stones  than  would  be 


Terrific  Force 
of  Waves. 


needed  at  and  above  water  level.  This  is  the 
general  rule.  But  there  are  instances  to  prove 
that  wave  action  extends,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, to  a  much  greater  depth  than  was 
once  supposed.  Sir  W^illiam  Matthews,  the 
celebrated  harbour  engineer,  records  that  at 
Peterhead  breakwater,  during  a  storm  in  1898, 
blocks  weighing  upwards  of  41  tons  were 
displaced  at  a  level  of  nearly  37  feet  below 
low  vater  of  spring  tides,  and  that  a  section 
of  the  breakwater,  weighing  3,300  tons,  was 
slewed  bodily  two  inches  without  breaking  the 
joints.  It  is  estimated  that  to  effect  this  a 
pressure  of  two  tons  per  square  foot  below  as 
well  as  above  normal  water  level  must  have 
been  required.  The  same  authority  also  re- 
lates that  the  north  pier  at  the  entrance  to 


68 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


the  Tyne  was  founded  on  a  rubble  base, 
which,  at  the  outward  end  of  the  pier,  had 
its  crest  27  feet  below  water  ;  the  top  of  the 
mound  was  protected  by  an  apron  of  41-ton 
concrete  blocks  ;  yet  winter  storms  drew  out 
blocks  until  it  became  necessary  to  rebuild 
1,500  yards  of  the  pier. 


be  dealt  with,  of  the  materials  and  local 
labour  available,  and  many  other  points,  each 
of  which  demands  careful  and  minute  in- 
vestigation." 

For  localities  where  tides  are  small,  as  at 
Portland,  Plymouth  Sound,  and  Cape  Town, 
the  rubble  mound  form  of  breakwater  is  well 


A    TITAN    SKTTliNU    A    4:0-TON    APRON    BLOCK    AT    SOUTH    SHIELDS    BHEAKWATEK. 

Crane  built  by  Messrs.  Stothert  and  Pitt,  Bath. 


A  thorough  investigation  of  the  physical 
conditions  of  the  site  must  precede  the  prepa- 
ration of  a  design  for  a  harbour.     To  quote 

Sir  Wilham  Matthews  :    "  This 

Preliminary  ,•         i       u   , 

.  "^     examination  should  have  spe- 
Investigation.     .  ,         „ 

cial     reference     to     exposure, 

the   set   and   velocities   of   the   currents,    the 

possibility   of   shoaling   consequent   upon   the 

proximity  of  accumulations  of  sand  or  shingle, 

the  nature  and  depth  of  the  shelter  required 

and  its  extent,  the  character  of  the  strata  to 


Portland 
Cement. 


suited.  On  the  score  of  rapidity  of  construction 
and  minimum  cost,  the  concrete  wall,  formed 
either  of  mass  concrete  moulded 
in  situ,  or  of  blocks  manufac- 
tured in  special  yards  and 
carried  to  the  spot,  is  now  adopted  widely. 
It  is  not  overstating  the  case  to  say  that  the 
discovery  of  Portland  cement  has  revolution- 
ized the  art  of  harbour  construction,  by  fur- 
nishing the  engineer  with  a  ready  means  of 
overcoming  the  violence  of  the  ocean  by  the 


HARBOUR    CONSTRUCTION. 


69 


Giant  Cranes. 


sheer  weight  of  the  bodies  placed  in  the 
path  of  the  waves.  As  Mr.  Alan  Steven- 
son pointed  out  sixty  years  ago,  mass 
rather  than  cohesion  is  the  quality  on 
which  the  harbour  engineer  must  depend 
for  tiie  stability  of  a  wall.  A  single 
concrete  block  weighing  40  tons  is  much 
more  reliable  than  four  blocks  of  ten 
tons  each  bonded  and  tied  together  with 
the  utmost  human  art.  A  joint  means 
potential  weakness. 

The  building  of  efficient  concrete  block 
breakwaters  has  been  greatly  assisted  by 
recent  improvements  in  cranes  of  the 
"  Titan  "  and  "  Goliath  "  types.  The 
first  of  these  has  a  large  carriage  supported 
on  a  number  of  wheels  run- 
ning on  a  wide-gauge  railway 
laid  along  the  completed  portion  of  the  break- 
water. The  wheels  are  furnished  with  springs 
to  allow  for  inequalities  in  the  track.  Across 
the  carriage  run  two  large  girders  braced 
together  horizontally,  and  pivoted  on  a  pin 
which  is  set  at  the  centre  of  a  circle  of  rollers 
interposing  between  a  path  on  the  summit 
of  the  carriage,  and  a  similar  path  attached 
to  the  underside  of  the  girders. 

On  the  short  arm  of  the  girders  are  stationed 
a  movable  counterweight  and  the  steam- 
engine  which  swings  the  arm  round,  operates 
the  hoisting  tackle,  and,  on  being  connected 
up  through  gearing  with  the  track  wheels, 
moves  the  crane  bodily  backwards  or  forwards. 
The  largest  Titans  have  an  "  overhang," 
measured  from  the  centre  of  the  pin  to  the 
extreme  limit  of  which  the  hoisting  carriage 
can  bo  moved  out  along  the 
longer  arm,  of  about  100  feet, 
and  so  are  able  to  pick  up  or  deposit  a  block 
weighing  anjrthing  up  to  50  tons  within  a 
circle  200  feet  in  diameter.  A  liberal  over- 
hang is  of  great  importance  when  large  blocks 
are  handled,  as  the  blocks  are  necessarily  laid 
in  courses,  the  outer  ends  of  which  form  a 
series   of   steps.     The   deeper   the   water   the 


"Overhang." 


Titan  v. 
Goliath. 


DIAGRAM    TO    ILLUSTRATE    THE    GANTRY    SYSTEM  OF 
LAYING    BLOCKS. 

greater  is  the  number  of  steps,  and  the  further 
is  the  bottom  step  from  the  last  completed 
top  course.  Hence  it  follows  that  a  crane  with 
a  very  big  reach  can  lay  blocks  in  a  depth  of 
water  which  would  with  a  crane  of  smaller 
reach  necessitate  the  use  of  smaller  blocks. 

The  great  advantages  of  this  type  of  crane 
are  that  in  stormy  weather  it  can  be  with- 
drawn out  of  reach  of  the  waves,  assuming 
that  the  breakwater  has  con- 
nection with  the  shore  ;  and 
that,  as  it  builds  its  own  path, 
no  trestle  work  or  other  special  structures 
liable  to  damage  are  required.  On  the  other 
hand  the  "  Goliath  "  or  gantry  crane,  running 
on  tracks  supported  by  rows  of  piles  driven 
ahead  of  the  block  laying,  and  spanning  the 
area  to  be  covered  by  blocks,  is  able  to  assist 
in  preliminary  operations,  such  as  levelling 
the  surface  on  to  which  the  blocks  will  be 
lowered,  as  we  shall  notice  later  on  when 
dealing  with  the  Dover  Harbour  Works.  Also 
a  long  "  working  end,"  allowing  the  lowest 
course  to  be  laid  over  a  considerable  area  before 
the  upper  courses  are  superimposed,  minimizes 
the  cracks  and  settlements  which  sometimes 
occur  when  the  short  working  end  associated 
with  the  Titan  is  used. 

Coming  now  to  a  brief  review  of  some  of  the 
most  notable  artificial  harbours,  the  first  place 


70 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


is  taken  chronologically  and  otherwise  by  the 
immense  digue  protecting  Cherbourg  Harbour. 
It  was  begun  in  the  time 
of  Louis  the  Fourteenth,  and 
after  being  severely  damaged 
and  repaired  several  times,  was 
finally  reconstructed  in  1832.  Its  total  length 
is  4,120  yards,  or  about  2J  miles,  making  it 


The 

Cherbourg- 

Digue. 


and  topped  by  a  wall  of  granite  masonry. 
The  wall  is  protected  on  the  sea  slope  by 
blocks  deposited  "  random." 

The  great  breakwater  in  the  entrance  to 
Plymouth  Sound  owes  its  existence  to  the 
genius  of  the  famous  engineer,  John  Rennie. 
In  1811  an  Order  in  Council  was  issued  allow- 
ing Rennie  to  commence  the  gigantic  task  of 


U.iiM^lt t>    - 


A    BLOCK-MAKING    YARD,    DOVER    HARBOUR    WORKS. 

Some  of  the  concrete  blocks  weigh  over  forty  tons  each. 


the  longest  single  breakwater  in  the  world. 
It  consists  of  two  arms,  2,441  and  1,679  yards 
long,  forming  with  each  other  an  angle  of 
about  170  degrees.  At  each  extremity,  and 
at  the  point  of  junction  of  the  arms,  pro- 
vision was  made  for  a  large  circular  fort. 
This  remarkable  mole  shelters  an  area  of 
nearly  2,000  acres,  being  assisted  by  a  500- 
yard  breakwater  running  out  from  the  shore 
towards  its  eastern  end.  As  it  stands  to-day, 
the  digue  consists  of  a  rubble  bank  faced 
with  a  thick  blanket  of  hydraulic   concrete, 


forming,  with  stones  deposited  from  barges, 

a  dike  a  mile  long,  55  yards  wide  at  the  base 

and  10  yards  wide  at  the  crest. 

The    breakwater    was    to    be    ^    ^f" 

.  Breakwater. 

quite    isolated,    and    have    a 

straight  central  part  1000  yards  in  length,  with 
terminal  wings,  each  350  yards  long,  inclined 
at  a  very  obtuse  angle  to  the  main  portion. 

Rennie's  method  was  to  dump  the  stones 
in  mass  along  the  line  of  the  breakwater,  and 
to  allow  the  waves,  which,  he  declared,  were  the 
best  possible  workmen  obtainable,  to  move  the 


HARBOUR    CONSTRUCTION. 


71 


blocks  until  they  lay  on  the  natural  slope 
assumed  by  loose  stones  subjected  to  the  action 
of  heavy  waves.  This  slope  he  had  already 
decided,  after  careful  observation,  to  be  one  of 
about  1  in  5. 


opinion  ran  strongly  in  Renniu  >  iavour.  At 
the  end  of  August  1815  nearly  650,000  tons 
of  stone  had  been  deposited,  bringing  1,100 
yards  of  the  breakwater  above  low-spring 
tides.     In  this  year  the  captive  Napoleon,  as 


The   first   stone,   a   large   block   of   marble,       he    passed    into    Plymouth    Sound,    expressed 


INSIDE    ONE    OF    THE    DIVING-BELLS    USED    FOR    LEVELLING    THE    SEA    BOTTOM    FOR    THE    CONCRETE 

BLOCKS,    DOVER    HARBOUR    WORKS. 


went  into  the  water  on  August  12,  1811. 
During  the  next  two  years  barges  brought 
their  loads  from  quarries  on  shore,  and  dumped 
them  through  trap-doors  in  their  bottoms  along 
the  line  indicated  by  buoys.  For  more  than  a 
year  the  work  had  no  visible  effect  in  calming 
the  waters  of  the  Sound,  and  people  who  did 
not  understand  the  nature  of  the  task  began 
to  grumble  about  the  great  expense  and  waste 
of  money.  In  March  1813,  however,  the 
stones  began  to  show  above  water,  and  populai" 


his  admiration  at  the  boldness  and  great  scale 
of  the  undertaking.  Throughout  1816  stone 
was  deposited  at  the  rat«  of  1,030  tons  per 
day — a  record  which  could  hardly  be  beaten 
at  the  present  time,  in  spite  of  the  great  im- 
provements in  methods  of  handling  material  ; 
and  by  December  .i<iii  yards  of  the  mole 
stood  out  20  feet  above  low  water  of  spring 
tides.  Rennie  had  been  severely  criticised  by 
his  employers  for  using  so  gi*adual  a  slope  as 
1    ill    3,    and    thereby   greatly   increasing   the 


72 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


WEST    END    OP    THE    ISLAND    BREAKWATER,    DOVER    HARBOUR,    SHOWING    GRANITE    MASONRY    FACING 

OP    THE    BLOCKS. 


total  quantity  of  stone  required.     In  deference 

to  the  critics,  but  against  his  own  convictions, 

he  altered  the  seaward  slope  to  1  in  3,      In 

January  of   1817  severe  gales 

.       .  ""I^,       raged    for    several    days.     As 
justified  by        ^  ,  ,  -^ 

Storms         soon  as  the  weather  permitted 

the  ridge  to  be  examined,  it 
was  found  that  a  considerable  part  of  the 
slope  had  been  converted  from  1  in  3  to  1 
in  5  by  the  waves,  which  had  flung  great 
blocks  of  stone  over  the  crest  on  to  the  lee- 
ward face.  In  spite  of  this  object  lesson  no 
alteration  in  the  plans  was  made,  and  the 
work  went  on  as  before. 

John  Rennie  died  in  1821,  long  before  his 
greatest  enterprise  in  marine  engineering  had 
been  completed.  An  even  more  violent  storm 
than  that  just  referred  to  came  in  November 
1824,  and  again  proved  the  engineer  to  be 
right,  by  reducing  the  slope  for  a  distance  of 


800  yards.  The  authorities  therefore  decided 
to  follow  Rennie's  original  advice.  The  break- 
water was  completed — but  not  until  1848 — on 
the  1  in  5  slope,  and,  to  prevent  the  displace- 
ment of  rubble  at  and  above  low-water  level, 
the  faces  and  top  were  protected  by  large 
blocks  of  stone  carefully  shaped  and  cemented 
and  dovetailed  together.  During  construction 
the  width  at  top  was  increased  to  11  yards, 
and  at  bottom  to  133  yards. 

Altogether,  the  breakwater  consumed 
3,670,444  tons  of  stone  and  22,147  cubic 
yards  of  masonry,  the  placing  of  which  cost 
the  nation  a  million  and  a  half  sterling.  Yet 
the  money  was  well  spent,  as  the  Sound  is 
now  well  sheltered  from  the  gales,  even  such 
waves  as  pass  over  the  breakwater  being  so 
reduced  in  size  that  they  interfere  but  little 
with  the  shipping  inside. 

The  Holyhead  breakwater  exceeds  consider- 


HARBOUR    CONSTRUCTION. 


73 


LOWERING    A    40-TON    BLOCK,    DOVER    HARBOUR. 

ably  in  mass  that  just  described.  It  is  7,860 
feet  long,  and  has  a  greatest  width  at  bottom 
of  460  feet,  and  a  maximum 


Holyhead 
Breakwater. 


height  of  about  65  feet,  in- 
cluding the  wall  built  on  the 
rubble  mound.  The  engineer,  the  late  Mr. 
J.  M.  Rendel,  was  enabled,  owing  to  the  land 
connection,  to  use  trucks  running  on  stagings 
supported  by  piles  for  carrying  the  stone  to 
the  dumping  spot.  The  wagons  had  flap 
bottoms,  through  which  the  stones  were 
dropped.  As  soon  as  the  waves  had  con- 
solidated the  mass,  and  brought  the  slopes 
to  the  natural  "  angle  of  repose,"  the  super- 
structure, two  walls  enclosing  a  hearting  of 
rubble  masonry,  was  built.  The  seaward  face 
of  the  wall  is  protected  at  the  foot  by  the 
large  rubble  covering  the  top  of  the  mound. 

The  year — 1847 — in  which  the  Holyhead 
breakwater  was  begun  also  witnessed  the  com- 
mencement of  the  breakwater  at  Alderney, 
which   is   remarkable    as    being    formed   near 


Alderney 
Breakwater. 


the  head  in  a  depth  of  133  feet  below  low 
water  at  ordinary  spring  tides.  The  super- 
structure, a  wall  59  feet  high, 
gave  much  trouble  owing  to 
settlements  of  the  mound  be- 
low and  to  the  terrific  pounding  it  received 
from  large  stones  of  the  mound  during  storms. 
This  breakwater  cost  £1,217,000,  or  about 
£200  for  every  lineal  foot. 

Passing  now  to  Ireland,  we  should  notice  the 
breakwater  on  the  south  side  of  Dublin  Har- 
bour. The  foreshore  (sea  slope)  of  this  was 
originally    faced   with   granite 

blocks,    the   largest   of   which       immense 

Blocks  at 
weighed   6  tons.     These  were         Dublin 

gradually  broken  up  and  re- 
moved by  the  waves ;  so  in  1862,  Mr.  B.  B. 
Stoney  replaced  them  with  50-ton  concrete 
blocks,  which  sufficed  until,  in  1873,  a  storm 
pulled  one  out,  moved  it  30  feet,  and  turned 
it  completely  over.  Determined  to  effect 
permanent  repairs,   Mr.   Stoney  prepared  on 


74 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


land  the  largest  concrete  blocks  that  have 
ever  been  transported  in  their  complete  con- 
dition. Each  block  measured  27  by  21 J  by 
12  feet,  contained  nearly  5,000  cubic  feet  of 
concrete,  and  weighed  350  tons.  After  being 
allowed  to  dry  for  ten  weeks  a  block  was 
lifted  by  a  shears  on  a  floating  pontoon, 
carried  to  its  site,  and  lowered  on  to  the 
foreshore,  where,  until  now,  it  has  helped  to 
protect  the  foreshore  and  sea  wall  most 
effectively. 

For  a  really  extraordinary  example  of  the 
forces  with  which  the  engineer  has  to  contend 
we    may    cite   the    dislocation   of   the    super- 
structure   of    Wick    Harbour. 

What  the      jn  1871  the  head  of  the  super- 
W^aves  did 

.  .,„  ,  structure  was  formed  as   fol- 

at  Wick. 

lows  :  on  the  levelled  top  of 
the  rubble  mound  a  single  course  of  100-ton 
concrete  blocks  ;  then  two  courses  of  80-ton 
blocks  ;  and  finally  an  800-ton  monolith  of 
cement  rubble,  attached  to  the  uppermost 
course  of  blocks  by  3-inch  iron  rods.  The 
whole  mass — 1,350  tons — was  removed  bodily 
by  the  waves,  turned  round,  and  dropped 
inside  the  mound ;  while  the  second  course  of 
80-ton  blocks  was  swept  away  like  so  many 
bricks.  A  2,600-ton  concrete  monolith  was 
substituted.  Before  it  was  two  years  old  a 
storm  shifted  it  and  broke  it  in  half  ! 

Portland  Harbour  is  probably  the  largest 
of  all  purely  artificial  harbours.  It  has  an 
area  of  well  over  2,000  acres  to  the  one  fathom 
line,  and  includes  1,500  acres 
of  five-fathom  water  at  low 
tide.  The  harbour  is  bounded 
by  the  land  and  the  famous  Chesil  Bank  of 
shingle  on  the  west  and  north-west,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  island  from  which  it  gets 
its  name.  In  1849  a  rubble  breakwater  was 
begun,  running  from  the  island  in  a  north- 
easterly direction,  and  beyond  it  a  second 
and  much  longer  detached  mound  bending 
sharply  northwards.  Between  the  two  was 
left  a  narrow  passage  for  ships.     The  mounds, 


Portland 
Harbour. 


completed  in  1872,  were  formed  by  running 
stones  down  a  ropeway  from  the  Portland 
quarries  to  a  staging  erected  on  the  line  of 
the  breakwater,  along  which  they  were  moved 
in  trucks  for  dumping.  The  work  was  done 
by  convict  labour. 

To  render  the  harbour  fit  for  strategical 
purposes  and  able  to  protect  warships  from 
torpedo  attack,  two  large  additional  break- 
waters, pointing  south-eastwards  from  the 
northern  end,  have  been  added.  The  Bin- 
cleaves  breakwater,  1,550  yards  long,  reaches 
out  from  the  mainland.  A  second  and  iso- 
lated mound  lies  between  it  and  the  seaward 
extremity  of  the  old  island  breakwater,  there 
being  a  700-foot  passage  at  each  end.  For 
these  newer  works  the  stones  quarried  at 
Portland  were  delivered  down  a  rope  incline 
into  barges,  which  dumped  them  on  the  line 
of  the  mounds,  as  had  been  done  many  years 
before  at  Plymouth.  On  the  top  of  the 
mounds,  which  have  a  bottom  breadth  of 
285  feet  and  a  maximum  height  of  57  feet, 
is  a  wall  of  ashlar  about  20  feet  high.  The 
amount  of  material  used  in  the  2|  miles  of 
breakwater  was  enormous. 

The  Algiers  breakwater  is  an  interesting 
example  of  a  mole  built  up  largely  of  concrete 
blocks  thrown  in  at  random.  The  older  part 
of  the  mole  is  composed  of 
25-ton  blocks  heaped  up  on 
the  sea  bed.  The  newer  portion  was  con- 
structed at  less  expense  by  bringing  a 
flat  rubble  mound  to  within  33  feet  of  low- 
water  level,  and  depositing  the  blocks  on  this 
base.  The  use  of  random  blocks  is  economical, 
since  less  labour  is  required,  and,  as  the 
spaces  between  the  blocks  equal  one-third  of 
the  total  volume  of  the  heap,  les9  material ; 
but  a  mound  so  constructed  would  not  be 
suitable  for  sites  where  the  waves  are  ex- 
ceptionally violent. 

The  new  defensive  harbour  at  Gibraltar  has 
an  area  of  about  440  acres.  It  is  protected  by 
two  moles  running  out  from  the  shore  and  by 


Algiers. 


HARBOUR    CONSTRirCTION. 


75 


a  detached  mole  which  occupies  about  three- 
quarters  of  the  distance  between  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  shore  moles.  The 
"  island,"  or  detached  break- 
water, consists  of  a  vertical  wall  of  large 
concrete  blocks  built  upon  a  rubble  mound 


Gibraltar. 


centre  of  the  mole,  and  sunk  on  to  the  rubble 
mound.  The  interior  was  then  filled  in  gradu- 
ally with  concrete,  and  eventually  an  artificial 
island,  weighing  9,000  tons,  came  into  exist- 
ence. On  it  were  erected  two  Titans,  which 
worked   away   from   one   another,   laying   the 


BREAKWATER    AT    VERA    CRUZ,    SHOWING         RANDOM         CONCRETE    BLOCKS    TO    PROTECT    THE    WALL. 


formed  in  from  45  to  65  feet  of  water.  As  it 
was  impossible  to  connect  the  site  of  this 
breakwater  with  the  shore,  the  engineers 
adopted  a  novel  plan  for  providing  a  founda- 
tion from  which  the  Titan  cranes  could  com- 
mence their  task  of  block  laying.  A  huge 
steel  caisson,  101  feet  long  at  the  bottom, 
74  feet  long  at  the  top,  33  feet 
wide,  and  48 1  feet  high,  was 
built  in  England,  taken  to 
pieces,  and  shipped  to  Gibraltar,  where  it  was 
reassembled,    towed    to    its   position    at    the 


An  Enormous 
Monolith. 


blocks  which  were  brought  up  by  barges  as 
required. 

At  Zeebrugge  a  breakwater  5,000  feet  long 
has  been  built  recently  to  protect  the  entrance 
to  the  Bruges  Canal.  The  outer  part  of  the 
breakwater,  which  has  to  bear 
the  brunt  of  a  storm,  is  com- 
posed of  huge  concrete  mono- 
liths weighing  about  4,400  tons  each,  and 
measuring  82  feet  in  length,  29i  feet  in  width, 
and  28 1  feet  in  height — probably  the  largest 
series    of    concrete    blocks    ever    made.      On 


A  Novel 
Process. 


76 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


account  of  their  huge  size  and  weight  they 
could  not  be  transported  complete  to  their 
final  positions,  nor  was  it  convenient  to  mould 
them  wi  situ.  The  engineers  therefore  adopted 
the  following  procedure  :  In  the  inner  harbour 
iron  caissons  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
blocks  to  be  were  put  together.  They  had 
an  inner  skin  some  feet  distant  from  the 
outer  one,  the  two  skins  being  brought  to- 
gether at  the  bottom  to  form  a  cutting  edge. 
The  space  between  the  skins  having  been 
filled  up  with  sufficient  concrete  to  give  sta- 
bility, a  caisson  was  towed  out  and  sunk  in  its 
place  by  adding  some  more  concrete,  until 
the  cutting  edge  had  sunk  well  down  into 
the  clayey  sea  bottom.  The  central  space 
was  then  filled  in  with  concrete  lowered 
by  means  of  cranes  and  skips. 

For  the  Newhaven  and  La  Guaira  Har- 
bours the  "  sack  block  "  system  was  em- 
ployed. For  this  a  special  barge,  with 
hinged  bottom,  is  used.  The  bottom  hav 
ing  been  closed,  a  large  sheet  of  stout  jute 
sacking   is   arranged   over   it    and  up  the 

sides  of  the  central  well. 
Concrete  is  deposited  on  the 
canvas  and  levelled  until  a 
sufficient  thickness — from  two 
-is  attained,  when  the  edges  of 
the  sacking  are  brought  over  the  top  of  the 
mass  and  laced  together.  The  vessel  is 
moved  to  the  dumping  spot,  and,  on  the 
bottom  being  opened,  the  sack  and  its 
contents  are  deposited.  The  concrete  soon 
hardens.  At  La  Guaira  courses  of  180,  130, 
and  70  ton  blocks  were  laid,  the  largest  blocks 
being  at  the  base,  and  the  size  decreasing 
upwards. 

Sack  blocks  were  also  used  for  the  founda- 
tions of  the  new  south  breakwater  at  Aber- 
deen.       This    breakwater    is    an    interesting 

example     of     mass     concrete 
Aberdeen. 

work.     From  the  single  course 

of  sacks  on  the  sea  bed  to  low-water  level 
at  neap  tides  the  structure  is  composed  of 


large  concrete  blocks.  These  are  capped  by 
monoliths  of  concrete  formed  in  place  in 
wooden  frames,  and  weighing  from  335  to 
1,300  tons  each,  according  to  their  length 
along  the  line  of  the  breakwater.  Each  mono- 
lith extends  right  across  the  breakwater. 

At  Vera  Cruz,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  one 
of  the  greatest  artificial  harbours  in  the  New 
World.  The  coast -line  here  faces  north- 
north-east,  and  originally  was 
exposed  to  the  furious 
"  Northers,"  which  did  great  damage  to 
any  shipping  anchored  in  the  port.  Even 
slight  breezes  hampered  seriously  the  trans- 


mi 


Vera  Cruz. 


The 

Sack  Block 

System. 

to  three  feet- 


NORTH-EAST    BREAK  VVATKK,    VERA    CRUZ. 

A,  Random  concrete  blocks ;   B,  rubble  mo\ind ;  C,  concrete 
blocks  in  courses  ;   D,  concrete  cap. 

ference  of  cargo  from,  ship  to  lighter,  or  vice 
versd.  In  1882,  James  B.  Eads,  the  designer 
and  engineer  of  the  St.  Louis  Bridge  (Vol.  II., 
p.  163  foil.),  submitted  plans  for  utilizing  the 
coral  reefs  near  the  port  as  foundations  for 
breakwaters  which  would  create  a  secure 
harbour.  Between  that  date  and  1895  a 
small  part  of  the  total  work  required  was 
done.  In  the  latter  year  the  contractors 
handed  over  the  enterprise  to  Messrs.  S. 
Pearson  and  Son  of  London,  who  completed 
it  successfully  during  the  following  seven 
years.  Three  separate  breakwaters  had  to 
be  built  on  the  north-west,  north-east,  and 
south-east  respectively.  The  first  of  these 
was  formed  by  depositing  a  rubble  mound 
from  a  trestle,  and  capping  it  with  a  wall 
of  35-ton  concrete  blocks  laid  by  a  crane.  On 
the  seaward  side  this  breakwater  is  partly 
protected  by  random  blocks  placed  by  a  pre- 
vious contractor.     For  the  north-east  mole  a 


A    OKANE    sKiiiNG    30-TON    BLOCKS    ON    THE    NORTH-EAST    BREAKWATER,    VEUA    CiiU^i. 

{By  permission  of  Messrs.  S.  Pearson  and  Son,  Ltd.) 


7S 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


rubble  foundation  was  dumped  from  cars  and 
barges,  and  levelled  carefully  by  divers.  This 
foundation  is  about  20  feet  high,  and  is  brought 
up  to  10  feet  below  low  water.  Along  its 
crest  a  Titan  and  two  floating  cranes  laid 
sloping  35-ton  blocks,  a  number  of  which 
were   thrown   at   random   along   the   exterior 


world,  and  equipped  with  every  facility.  The 
harbour  has  an  area  of  543  acres,  and  an 
average  depth  of  28  feet  at  low  water.  Six 
and  a  half  million  cubic  metres  of  sand  and 
50,000  of  rock  were  removed  by  dredges. 
The  port  works  consumed  2,000,000  tons  of 
stone  and  concrete.     There  are  about  3|  miles 


DIVERS,    DIVING-BELL,    AND    A    LARGE    GRAB    FOR    LEVELLING    i'Hi:    SKA    BOTTOM. 


side.  The  breakwater  has  an  average  width 
of  97J  feet  and  a  length  of  2,400  feet.  It 
may  be  mentioned  that  the  Titan  crane, 
weighing  360  tons,  was  flung  off  the  break- 
water by  a  gale,  but  was  recovered,  and  used 
for  further  harbour  building. 

The  south-east  breakwater,  3,070  feet  long 
and  65  feet  wide  (average),  was  formed  of 
rubble,  capped  with  concrete  blocks  and 
mass  concrete. 

In  addition  to  the  moles,  Messrs.  Pearson 
built  an  inner  protection  wall,  and  by  means 
of  quays  and  piers  converted  Vera  Cruz  into 
a  first-class  artificial  port,  equal  to  any  in  the 


of  piers  and  quays.  The  total  cost  is  calcu- 
lated at  about  £3,000,000  sterling. 

An  even  greater  undertaking  carried  out 
by  the  same  firm  of  contractors  is  the  new 
Admiralty    harbour     at    Dover,    constructed 

during    the    years    1898-1909. 

T     ,  c  Dover. 

It  has  an  area  of   610  acres, 

and  is  one  of  the  largest  artificially  enclosed 
sea-water  spaces  in  the  world.  The  work  to 
be  done — shown  on  the  accompanying  plan — 
consisted  of — (1)  lengthening  the  old  Admir- 
alty Pier  2,000  feet ;  (2)  reclaiming  and 
excavating  out  of  the  cliffs  an  area  3,850  feet 
long  by  250  feet  wide  ;    (3)  building  a  3,320- 


HARBOUR    CONSTRUCTION. 


79 


PLAN 
The 


foot  breakwater  at  the  east  end  ;  (4) 
building  an  island  breakwater  on  the 
south,  between  the  heads  of  the  two 
arms. 

The  form  of  structure  adopted  for 
the  breakwaters  was  a  wall  between  50 
and  GO  feet  wide  at  the  base,  built  on 
the  sea  bottom,  and  tapering  upwards 
gradually  to  a  height  varying  between 
80  and  90  feet.  For  all  the  walls  large 
concrete  blocks,  weighing  up  to  42i 
tons,  were  used,  those  set  on  the  sea 
faces  being  covered  with  granite  ashlar  built 
up  inside  the  moulds  before  the  concrete  was 
poured  in. 

The  contractors  began  operations  on  the 
Admiralty  Pier  extension,  and  cutting  away 
the  chalk  cliff  along  the  easterly  half  of  the 
strip  of  shore  included  in  the  harbour.  The 
chalk,  detached  by  gangs  of  men  roped  to- 
gether for  safety,  was  dumped  in  the  sea 
behind  a  retaining  wall  of  3-ton  blocks. 
Eventually  ample  room  was  secured  for  block- 
making  yards,  workshops,  and  storehouses. 

As  a  preliminary  to  construction  work,  the 
shore  end  of  the  great  gantries  to  carry  the 
100-ton  Goliath  cranes  had  to  be  built  by 
driving  iii  great  iron-shod 
piles,  100  feet  long  and  from 
18  to  20  inches  square,  in 
groups  of  six,  three  on  each  side  of  the  line 
of  the  future  blockwork,  and  by  connecting  the 
groups  with  horizontal  girders  and  bracings. 
The  girders  were  covered  with  a  heavy  timber 
flooring  as  a  base  for  the  Goliath  and  block- 
truck  tracks.  Oregon  pine  piles  were  used  in 
the  first  instance,  but  replaced  subsequently 
by  sticks  of  Tasmanian  blue  gum,  which, 
being  heavier  than  water,  does  not  float  when 
detached,  to  the  danger  of  shipping,  and  is 
immune  from  the  ravages  of  the  sea- worm. 

When  a  gantry  had  been  advanced  suffi- 
ciently a  Goliath  was  erected  on  it,  to  work 
the  grabs  and  breakers  used  for  levelling 
roughly  the  sea  bottom.      Behind  this  crane 


^«„(l,,cf  Wind    BfTjKwiltr 


The  Goliath 
Gantries. 


OF    NEW    ADMIRALTY    HARBOUR,    DOVER, 
works  marked  in  solid  black  have  recently  been  completed  by 
Messrs.  S.  Pearson  and  Son. 

followed  a  second  for  the  diving-bells,  under 
cover  of  which  divers  levelled  the  surface 
accurately.  A  succeeding  crane  did  the  under- 
water block  laying,  the  crane-men  working 
in  accordance  with  signals  sent  up  by  divers, 
and  a  fourth  placed  the  above- water  courses. 
This  system  made  for  general  rapidity  of 
progress,  as  all  the  stages  of  construction 
proceeded  simultaneously  when  weather  and 
tide  permitted.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  Admiralty  Pier  extension  was  built  at 
more  than  six  times  the  speed  of  the  old  pier 
— 600  feet  in  a  year  compared  with  about 
90  feet. 

To  save  time,  the  contractors  wished  to 
build  the  island  breakwater  independently 
of  shore  connections  ;  but,  owing  to  diffi- 
culties in  securing  a  starting  -  point  in  the 
open  sea,  it  was  found  necessary  to  prolong 
the  gantries  of  the  east  arm  and  bring  up  the 
cranes  and  material  over  that  arm,  closing  tem- 
porarily the  south-east  entrance  to  the  harbour. 

About  64,000  blocks,  weighing  together 
1,920,000  tons,  have  been  used  in  forming 
the  breakwater  walls.  To  get  the  grand  total 
of  about  3,000,000  tons  we  add  the  blocks 
for  the  retaining  wall  of  the  reclamation  and 
the  horizontal  apron  blocks  laid  on  the  sea- 
ward side  of  the  breakwaters.  The  excellent 
views  which,  by  the  courtesy  of  Messrs.  S. 
Pearson  and  Son,  we  reproduce,  will  give  the 
reader  a  better  idea  of  the  constructional 
operations  than  could  be  conveyed  by  words. 


THE   TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 


.  ■>♦'     '  .|e  'i' 


ENTRANCES    TO    TUNNELS    IN    THE    TRANS-BAIKAL    SECTION    OP    THE    RAILWAY. 

^he  words  "  TO  THE  GREAT  OCEAN  "  appear  over  the  western  portal,  "  TO  THE  ATLANTIC  OCEAN 

over  the  eastern  portal. 

BY    T.    FLETCHER    FULLARD,    M.A. 
An  Account  of  the  Longest  Railway  in  the  World. 


Early 
Schemes. 


A  MONG  the  incidents  in  the  Crimean  War 
/-\  was  the  unsuccessful  attack  by  a 
^  ^  British  squadron  upon  the  fort  of 
Vladivostok.  When,  a  few  years  later  (1860), 
China  ceded  to  Russia  the  Littoral  Province 
— the  Ussuri  and  the  valley 
of  the  Amur — the  empire  of 
the  Czar  was  established  still 
more  firmly  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  From 
that  time  onwards  various  schemes  for  con- 
necting these  Far  Eastern  dominions  with 
European  Russia  by  a  railway  were  succes- 
sively brought  forward,  discussed,  and  allowed 
to  lapse.     Continental  railway  building  was  a 

(1,408) 


science  comparatively  in  its  infancy  ;  and  for 
long  the  vast  distances  and  the  colossal  ex- 
pense involved,  added  to  the  doubtful  success 
of  so  enormous  an  undertaking,  proved  in- 
superable obstacles. 

The  earliest  project  is  credited  to  an  English 
engineer  named  Dull,  who  suggested  a  horse- 
drawn  railway  from  Nizhni  Novgorod  on  the 
Volga  to  the  Pacific — not  such  a  wildly  chimer- 
ical idea  after  all,  considering  the  plenty  and 
excellence  of  horse-flesh  in  Siberia.  Then 
various  private  companies  offered  to  lay  steam 
tracks  across  the  plains  ;  but  they  met  with 
scant  encouragement,  the  would-be  promoters 

6  VOL.  III. 


82 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


being  for  the  most  part  foreigners.  Yet  the 
main  idea  was  constantly  under  consideration, 
and  in  1875  an  Imperial  Commission  reported 
that  Vladivostok  ought  to  be  connected  by 
rail  with  the  valley  of  the  Amur.  Again, 
fifteen  years  later, 
the  Minister  of 
Ways  of  Communi- 
cation reported  to 
the  Czar  that  "  the 
Ussuri  Railway 
ought  to  be  laid 
down  with  all  pos- 
sible speed.'  On 
the  margin  of  this 
report  Alexander 
the  Third  wrote 
with  his  own  hand  : 
"It  is  urgent  to 
begin  laying  down 
this  track  at  the 
earliest  possible 
moment." 

These  words 
settled  the  ques- 
tion. On  March  29 
(new  style),  1891, 
an  imperial  rescript 
was  addressed  to 
the  Czarevitch 
Nicholas  (the  pres- 
ent   Czar),    stating 

that  the  order  had  been  given  "  to  build  a 
continuous  line  of  railway  across  Siberia  to 
unite  the  rich  Siberian  prov- 
inces with  the  railway  system 
of  the  interior."  This  mo- 
mentous decree  was  promulgated  by  the 
prince  upon  his  landing  at  Vladivostok 
from  his  Eastern  tour.  On  the  31st  of  the 
following  May,  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of 
labourers  and  convicts  standing  ready  with 
picks  and  shovels,  he  turned  the  first  sod  of  a 
railway  which  was  to  run  for  4,731  miles. 
Since  that  date  events  in  the  Far  East  have 


THE    GREAT    BRIDGE    OVER    THE    VOLGA. 


A  Railway 
commanded. 


marched  with  startling  rapidity,  and  the  share 
taken  therein  by  the  Great  Siberian  Railway, 
as  both  cause  and  effect,  has  been  all-im- 
portant. 

The  Russian  peasant  is  slow,  slothful,  and 

improvident,  but  a 
man  of  indomit- 
able perseverance 
withal.  These  at- 
tributes may  be 
justly  ascribed  to 
the  influences  of 
the  land  in  which 
he  lives.  The  dis- 
tances are  so  great, 
the  monotony  so 
unvarying,  in  a 
country  where  six 
months  of  travel 
scarce  serves  to 
change  the  scene, 
that  haste  and 
speed  seem  wasted 
effort ;  whereas  pa- 
tience and  endur- 
ance are  indispen- 
sable for  mere  ex- 
istence. Siberia  it- 
self, apart  from  the 
other  Russian  ter- 
ritories in  Europe 
and  Asia,  has  an 
area  of  7,824,056  square  miles.  Its  scanty 
population  is  about  7,200,000  souls — less  than 
one  to  the  square  mile.  The 
inhabitants  are  mainly  grouped 
upon  the  natural  line  of  travel, 
in  the  towns  which  have  grown  up  on  the 
great  waterways  and  are  now  strung  together 
upon  the  railway.  They  are  mostly  settlers 
and  exiles  from  European  Russia,  or  the 
descendants  of  exiles,  both  political  and 
criminal. 

Siberia  is  divided  into  the  Governments  of 
Tobolsk,   Tomsk,   Irkutsk,   and   Priamur,   the 


Inhabitants 
of  Siberia. 


THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 


83 


Features  of 
Siberia. 


Distances. 


last-named  being  the  region  between  Lake 
Baikal  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Western  Siberia 
extends  from  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains to  the  Yenisei  River,  in 
a  vast  plain  of  good  agricul- 
tural soil  in  the  middle  and  southern  parts, 
destined,  many  people  think,  to  become 
the  greatest  granary  of  the  world.  Eastern 
Siberia,  thrice  as  large,  is  mostly  hilly  or 
mountainous.  The  climate  is  severe,  with 
extremes  of  temperature,  and  abrupt  changes 
from  winter  to  summer  and  the  reverse. 

From  St.  Petersburg  to  Vladivostok  the 
total  distance  is  5,800  miles  ;  to  Port  Arthur, 
6,000  miles.  Leaving  the  modern  capital,  the 
traveller  reaches  Moscow  in 
eleven  to  twelve  and  a  half 
hours  by  an  almost  dead  straight  line  of  404 
miles.  From  Moscow  the  route  lies  through  a 
rich  country  dotted  with  some  of  the  most 
prosperous  villages  of  the  empire.  Samara  is 
reached  in  thirty-four  hours.  This  town  lies 
in  the  famous  "  black  earth  "  region,  known 
to  the  Russians  as  the  "  Tchernoziom,"  peopled 
by  a  strange  medley  of  races  and  tribes.  At 
this  point  comes  in  the  railway  from  Oren- 
burg, bringing  the  trade  of  Khiva,  Bokhara, 
and  Central  Asia. 

From  Samara  the  line  runs  north-east 
through  a  flat  country  to  Ufa  (95  miles),  and 
after  passing  Zlatoust  ascends  the  wooded 
slopes  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  great  mining 
region  of  European  Russia.  At  the  highest 
point  of  the  range  a  triangular  stone  pyramid, 
bearing  on  one  side  the  word  "  Europe,"  and 
on  another  "  Asia,"  marks  the  frontier.  The 
line  follows  the  curves  and  contours  of  the 
gentle  slopes  with  few  cuttings  and  no  tunnel 
whatever  throughout  its  course,  and  so  slides 
down  to  the  important  junction  of  Tchelya- 
binsk,  the  actual  starting-point  of  the  Siberian 
trunk  line,  and  also  the  terminus  of  a  railway 
now  running  northward  through  Ekaterinburg 
towards  Archangel  on  the  White  Sea. 

The    problem    which    faced    the    Russian 


engineers  and  financiers  in  1891  was  to  con- 
nect, by  means   of   an  uninterrupted   line  of 

rails,  this  station   of   Tchelya-      ^.     ^     . 

The  1  fl,SK 
binsk  with  Khabarovsk  on  the 

lower  Amur,  and  so  with  the  port  and  fortress 
of  Vladivostok.  The  work  naturally  divided 
itself  into  sections  presenting  widely  different 
degrees  of  engineering  difficulty.  The  great 
plains  of  the  west  lend  themselves  peculiarly 
to  railway  construction  ;  but  half  way,  roughly 
speaking,  is  the  very  formidable  obstacle  of 
Lake  Baikal,  throwing  its  full  length  across 
the  path.  East  of  this  lake  the  broken  valley 
of  the  Amur  promised  trouble  enough,  a  promise 
which  still  holds  good.  The  Vladivostok- 
Khabarovsk  section  was  fairly  simple,  and 
eventually  the  difficulties  of  the  Amur  valley 
were  turned,  as  will  be  seen,  by  diverting  the 
track  across  Chinese  territory,  which  afforded 
easy  going. 

During  the  three  last  years  of  Czar  Alex- 
ander's reign  much  progress  was  made  in 
mapping  and  surveying  the  route,  and  a  scheme 

for   laying    down   the    line    in 

1      mi  Surveying. 

sections  was  formulated.    Thus 

shortly  after  his  accession  in  1894  the  Czar 
Nicholas,  who  retained  his  post  of  president 
of  the  committee  directing  the  railway,  was 
able  to  say  to  the  members  :  "  With  your 
assistance,  I  hope  to  complete  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Siberian  line,  and  to  have  it  done 
cheaply,  and,  most  important  of  all,  quickly 
and  solidly." 

The  work  was  now  vigorously  put  in  hand  ; 
but  from  the  outset  the  enormous  sums  of 
money  required,  and  the  fact  that  the  scanty 
population  and  backward  state 
of  agriculture  in  Siberia  ren- 
dered a  return  of  profit  very  problematical, 
compelled  the  Imperial  Commission  to  keep 
the  initial  outlay  as  low  as  possible.  Euro- 
pean methods  of  railway  construction  had  to 
be  modified  very  greatly.  It  was  decided 
that  a  single  track  should  be  laid  down,  with 
a    through    carrjnng    capacity    of    only    three 


Specifications. 


84 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


pairs  of  trains  a  day.  Light  steel  rails,  weigh- 
ing 18  lbs.  to  the  foot,  were  held  to  be  of 
sufficient  strength.  The  bridges,  excepting 
those  across  the  great  rivers,  were  to  be  of 


should  have  been  15  feet,  was  reduced  to 
barely  11  feet.  Knowledge  of  facts  like  these 
led  foreign  critics  to  say  that  the  Siberian 
Railway  could  not  be  relied  upon  in  the  hour 


AN    EXPRESS    CKOSSING    THE    STEPPES    IN    WINTER 


wood.  The  width  of  the  embankment  was 
fixed  at  2*35  fathoms,  instead  of  2'6  fathoms, 
which  is  the  normal  width,  a  Russian  sa- 
zhene,  or  fathom,  containing  7  feet.  On  the 
steepest  gradients  and  sharpest  curves  con- 
siderable deviation  from  the  generally  ac- 
cepted rules  was  allowed.  The  sleepers  were 
to  be  laid  on  a  thin  bed  of  ballast,  and  all 
station  buildings  were  to  be  of  the  simplest 
construction.  Thus  in  the  beginning  one  part 
at  least  of  the  Czar's  aspirations  was  heavily 
discounted.  Worse  was  to  follow.  The  work 
being  let  out  by  contract,  the 
corruption  and  peculation  so 
rampant  in  Russia  got  a  golden 
Everywhere  the  Government 
was  plundered  most  flagrantly,  and  millions 
of  roubles  found  their  way  into  the  pockets 
of  officials  leagued  with  the  contractors. 
For  instance,  in  many  places  the  width  at  the 
top  of  the  embankment,  which  by  contract 


Corrupt 
Officials. 

opportunity. 


of  trial,  especially  as  the  line  was  a  single 
track.  These  views  have  been  fully  borne 
out,  for  the  traffic  has  been  repeatedly  stopped 
by  "  wash-outs,"  landslips,  and  accidents  to 
the  permanent  way.  As  late  as  May  1908 
the  manager  reported  to  St.  Petersburg  that 
an  interruption  of  the  traffic  was  due  at  that 
time  to  the  permanent  way  and  embankment 
having  been  washed  away  for  a  distance  of 
3 1  miles,  and  that  one  thousand  men  had  been 
set  to  work  to  repair  the  damage.  One  cannot 
avoid  the  reflection  that  the  patriotic  resolve 
of  Czar  Alexander  to  employ  none  but  Russian 
brains  and  hands  upon  his  great  undertaking 
is  more  to  be  applauded  than  admired.  Per- 
haps he  might  have  adjusted  his  wishes, 
however,  could  he  have  foreseen  how  political 
engineers  were  to  force  the  pace.  These 
initial  mistakes,  and  the  heavy  price  that  has 
since  been  enacted  for  them,  must  neverthe- 
less compel  great  respect  for  the  dogged  per- 


THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 


85 


severance  which  ultimately  won  success  at  the 
moment  of  the  nation's  sorest  need. 

Though  the  trains  for  the  long  eastward 
journey  are  made  up  at  Moscow,  the  actual 
starting-point  of  the  Siberian  Railway  is,  as  has 
been  said,  Tchelyabinsk,  1,372 
miles  from  Moscow,  and  about 
200  miles  beyond  the  frontier. 
The  trunk  line,  as  originally  planned  and  laid 
down,  runs  from  Tchelyabinsk  to  Stretensk 
on  the  Amur,  a  total  distance,  including  the 
width   of   Lake   Baikal,   of    3,244   miles,   and 


Sections  of 
the  Railway. 


Great  Rivers. 


MAP    OF    THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN    AND    MANCHURIAN    RAILWAYS 


was  divided  into  the  following  sections,  from 
west  to  east :  The  West  Siberian,  to  the  river 
Obi,  886  miles  ;  the  Mid-Siberian,  from  the 
Obi  to  Irkutsk,  1,144  miles  ;  the  Irkutsk, 
to  Baikal,  43  miles.  From  Stretensk  the 
journey  was  at  first  continued  by  steamer 
down  the  Amur  to  Khabarovsk,  and  com- 
pleted by  the  Ussuri  Railway  to  Vladivostok, 
481  miles. 

From  the  western  starting-point  right  away 
to  the  Baikal  the  engineering  aspect  of  the 
route  is  practically  uniform,  and  presented  a 
minimum  of  difficulty.  The  gently  rolling 
steppes  and  the  great  plain  lend  themselves, 


as  has  been  said,  to  railway  enterprise,  and 
the  wonder  is  that  the  work  had  not  been 
undertaken  long  before.  There  are  but  few 
cuttings,  and  the  direction  taken  was  the 
easiest  that  could  be  found.  At  first  the  track 
stood  only  a  foot  above  the  1 50  feet  of  clearing 
on  either  side,  and  on  the  imperfect  ballast  the 
sleepers  were  laid,  and  the  light  rails  spiked  to 
them.  From  this  brief  descrip- 
tion it  is  easy  to  realize  that 
no  great  speed  was  possible — 15  miles  an  hour 
the  maximum — and  that  the  rapidly  growing 
traffic  soon  began  to  reveal  the 
shortcomings  of  the  line.  The 
real  difficulties  were  presented 
by  the  great  streams,  the  Obi, 
the  Irtysh,  and  the  Yenisei, 
which,  with  their  numerous 
tributaries,  carry  off  the  rainfall 
of  the  mighty  mountain  system 
of  Central  Asia  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  affording  magnificent 
waterways  as  they  cross  the 
wide  plains,  and  serving  as  in- 
valuable feeders  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  railway.  No  less 
than  30  miles  of  bridges  had  to 
be  constructed  on  this  system, 
some  of  them  of  great  length. 
The  largest  is  that  across  the 
Yenisei,  an  iron  six-span  bridge 
of  2,520  feet,  including  one  span  of  420  feet. 
Work  of  this  nature  was  well  within  the  scope 
of  Prince  Khilkoff,  Minister  of  Ways  of  Com- 
munication, a  practical  engineer  trained  in  the 
workshops  of  England  and  America,  with  con- 
siderable experience  of  railway  construction 
ill  the  United  States.  Neither  he  nor  his 
staff,  however,  had  had  much  to  do  with 
tunnelling,  so  it  was  a  particularly  fortunate 
circumstance  that  no  work  whatever  of  this 
kind  was  needed  at  any  point  between  Europe 
and  the  Baikal.  After  the  Obi  is  passed,  the 
country  becomes  hilly  and  wooded  ;  but  gra- 
dients and  curves  are  always  moderate,  and 


86 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


construction  continued  to  be  uniformly  easy 
as  compared  with  work  on  the  same  scale  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  Beyond  the  Baikal, 
conditions  became  much  more  difficult.  In 
the  first  nine  years  after  the  work  was  begun 
in  May   1891  the  rails  were  laid  for  a  total 


the  great  Trans  -  Siberian  express  de  luxe, 
affording  the  highest  degree  of  comfort  in 
travelling  that  can  be  found  anywhere.  Not 
only  are  sleeping  and  dining  cars  provided, 
but  these  contain  bathrooms,  a  library, 
electric   light,    and   every   fitting   which   may 


ONE    OF    THE    EXPRESS    LOCOMOTIVES. 


{Pliolv,  Locomoiivt  Puhlidhing  Company.) 


distance  of  3,375  miles,  or  at  an  average 
yearly  rate  of  375  miles.  This  was  highly 
satisfactory,  as  very  serious  difficulties  had 
been  overcome,  especially  in  Trans-Baikalia, 
where  the  work  was  stopped  repeatedly  by 
inundations,  and  the  line  washed  away  for 
long  distances.  With  the  threat  of  war  with 
Japan  driving  them  on,  the  Russians,  it  may 
be  noted  in  passing,  actually  laid  a  part  of 
the  track  of  the  Manchurian  Railway  at  a 
rate  of  three  miles  a  day. 

Leaving  the  heavy  work  about  Lake  Baikal 
and  eastward  for  future  con- 
sideration, we  will  review  the 
western  and  central  sections  of 
the  line.  The  trains  which  leave  Moscow  vary 
greatly  in  their  composition.     There  is,  first, 


Siberian 
Trains. 


solace  the  bored  tourist,  all  unusually  com- 
modious, thanks  to  the  5-foot  gauge.  Then 
there  are  mixed  trains  of  first,  second,  and 
third  class  coaches  ;  others,  again,  of  the 
inferior  classes  only  ;  emigrant  trains  of  fourth 
and  even  fifth  class,  little  better  than  cattle- 
trucks  ;  and,  finally,  numerous  freight  trains. 
Following  its  policy  of  settling  the  country 
by  colonization,  the  Government  attracts  by 
offers  of  free  land  vast  numbers  of  agriculturists 
from  the  poverty-stricken  villages  of  Europe, 
and  conveys  them  almost  free  of  cost  to  their 
distant  destinations.  Naturally  the  accom- 
modation en  route  is  of  the  simplest  quality, 
floor  space  and  little  else  being  provided.  The 
fourth-class  travellers  enjoy  the  luxury  of 
windows  to  their  cars,  the  fifth  class  not  even 


THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 


87 


this.  The  convict  trains,  still  sufficiently 
numerous,  are  said  to  be  somewhat  less  com- 
fortless. The  Russian  peasant's  standard  of 
comfort  is,  however,  so  low,  that  he  appears 
to  suffer  little,  if  any,  hardship  while  travelling 
in  this  style. 

From  the  Urals  to  the  Obi  the  far-reaching 
plain  is  broken  only 
by  marshes  and 
salt-lakes,  with  an 
occasional  cluster 
of  snow  -  white 
birches.  At  every 
verst  is  a  signal- 
box,  each  in  sight 
of  the  next  on 
either  side,  worked 
with  little  green 
flags  by  stolid  peas- 
ants or  good-con- 
duct convicts. 
Red  -  painted  sta- 
tions break  the 
monotony  every 
twenty  or  thirty 
miles,  and  at  every 
one  a  halt  is  made 
by  the  ordinary 
trains  for  tea,  vod- 
ka, and  food  to  be 
taken.  There  is 
always  a  buffet, 
and  the  provisions 
supplied  are  gen- 
erally excellent.  When  the  journey  is  to  be 
resumed  a  bell  rings  thrice,  and  then  the 
locomotive  whistles  thrice  at 
long  intervals.  After  the  last 
whistle  there  is  again  a  long  wait  before  the 
train  starts  off  slowly.  After  Tchelyabinsk 
the  first  important  station  is  Kourgan,  on  the 
Tobol,  a  considerable  distance  from  the  town 
of  the  same  name.  In  this  region  the  Govern- 
ment has  reserved  a  belt  of  land  67  miles 
wide  alongside  the  railway  for  the  exclusive 


INTERIOR    OF    THE    CHURCH 
SIBERIAN 


Stations. 


use  of  colonists.  Petropavlovsk,  on  the  river 
ichim,  is  next  reached,  a  rapidly  developing 
town,  which  again  has  been  left  more  than  a 
mile  from  its  station.  Crossing  the  great 
stream  of  the  Irtysh  by  a  six-span  bridge, 
2,259  feet  in  length,  the  line  passes,  still  at 
a  respectful  distance,  the  large  town  of  Omsk, 

the    capital    of    its 
government. 

Omsk  railway 
station  is  one  of 
the  most  important 
centres  in  Siberia. 
It  contains  over 
seventy  railway' 
workshops,  a  large 
locomotive  shed,  a 
great  network  of 
sidings,  and  the 
general  stores  for 
the  railway.  There 
are  also  a  hospi- 
tal, churches,  and 
schools  for  the  use 
of  the  railway  men. 
With  the  cross- 
ing of  the  Obi,  by 
a  bridge  2,613  feet 
long,  some  400 
miles  beyond 
Omsk,  the  central 
section  of  the  rail- 
way is  entered 
upon.  For  rather 
more  than  a  hundred  miles  the  line  runs 
through  a  well-wooded,  slightly  hilly  region 
lying  between  the  steppes  and 
the  "  Taiga,"  the  impassable 
region  of  virgin  forest,  stretch- 
ing away  northwards  to  the  verge  of  the  Arctic 
zone.  Skirting  the  northern  spurs  of  the  Altai 
Mountains,  which  separate  Siberia  from  China, 
the  route  now  has  to  traverse  the  Ala  Tau 
and  Saian  Mountains,  and  here  the  work  of 
construction  began  to  meet  with  embarrassing 


CAR    WHICH    TRAVELS  ON  THE 
RAILWAY. 


Important 
Towns. 


88 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


difficulties.  The  cost  of  the  1,186  miles  be- 
tween the  Obi  and  Lake  Baikal,  though  the 
first  367  miles  was  over  open  plains,  amounted 
to  £11,743,901,  or  £9,902  per  mile.     The  prin- 


down  the  connecting  branch  from  the  little 
settlement  of  Taiga  ("In  the  wood")  to 
Tomsk,  the  same  "  dispute  "  arose  between 
the    surveyors    and    the    local     people,    and 


LAYING    THE    RAILS    OF    THE    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 

cipal  towns  on  this  section  are  Tomsk,  the 
most  populous  town  of  Siberia  and  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  Krasnoi- 
arsk,  and  Kansk.  Tomsk,  lying  at  the  end 
of  an  inconvenient  branch  line  56  miles  long, 
furnishes  the  most  glaring  instance  of  the 
official  methods  followed  during  the  survey  for 
the  railway.  The  surveying  engineers,  it  is 
well  established,  approached  the  Tomsk  town 
authorities,  and  hinted  that  under  certain 
conditions  the  main  line  would  be  laid  to  the 
town,  but  that  possibly  an  alternative  route 
might  be  chosen.  The  townspeople  were 
given  to  understand  that  to  secure  the  carry- 
ing out  of  the  former  project  the  usual  "  palm 
oil  "  must  be  forthcoming.  The  citizens  re- 
fused, however,  to  be  treated 
The  Penalties 
of  Independ> 
ence. 


in  that  way,  and  the  painful 
result  of  their  independence 
was  that  the  Siberian  Railway 

passed  nearly  sixty  miles  south  of  their  town. 

Again,    when    the    question    arose    of    laying 


the  former  took  their  revenge  by  allow- 
ing the  line  to  approach  Tomsk  within  two 
miles,  and  then  taking  it  carefully  round 
the  town  at  an  equal  distance,  to  a  terminus 
a  couple  of  miles  distant  on  the  farther  side. 
It  would  seem  that  no  Siberian  town  of  any 
importance  was  complaisant  enough  to  escape 
punishment  of  this  kind  entirely.  Perhaps 
Irkutsk  is  the  most  fortunate,  for  there  the 
station  is  but  on  the  other  side  of  the  river. 
Other  towns  generally  have  to  use  from  one 
to  three  miles  of  road,  and  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  in  Siberia  roads  are  no  roads. 
Two  or  three  feet  of  slush  or  dust  take  the 
place  of  road-metal  when  the  frost  is  out  of 
the  ground. 

From  Taiga  the  line  runs  300  miles  through 
virgin  pine-forests  until  Krasnoiarsk  is  ap- 
proached. This  is  another  important  dep6t, 
employing  fifteen  hundred  workmen  in  the 
various  shops  and  engine-sheds,  while  vast 
stores    of    railway    material    are    kept    there. 


THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 


89 


Krasnoiarsk  is  destined  to  play  a  great  part 
in  the  future  development  of  Siberia,  for  it  is 
connected  by  an  excellent  river  service  during 
the  navigation  season  with  Yeniseisk,  to  which 
point  on  the  Yenisei  River  sea-going  steamers 
ascend  from  the  Arctic  Ocean.  A  mile  and 
a  quarter  beyond  Krasnoiarsk  the  Yenisei  is 


A    WAYSIDE    STATION. 

{From  "  The  Real  Siberia,"  by  John  Foster  Fraser  ) 

crossed  by  a  six-span  bridge  of  3,054  feet  in 
length.  From  Kansk  to  Taichet,  a  distance 
of  105  miles,  the  line  runs  through  immense 
coalfields,  all  waiting  to  be  worked.  After 
Taichet  come  another  100  miles  of  the  Taiga, 
where  the  scanty  population  clings  closely  to 
the  railway. 

The  Central  Siberian  section  of  the  railway 
ends  on  the  bank  of  the  Angara  River,  facing 
Irkutsk,  2,035  miles  from  Tchelyabinsk.  Ir- 
kutsk, though  not  yet  absolutely  the  largest, 
is  certainly  the  richest  town  of  Siberia. 

A  short  section  of  43  miles,  containing  a 
prodigious  number  of  small  wooden  bridges, 
connects  Irkutsk  with  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal. 
This  famous  sheet  of  water, 
was  long  recognized  as  the 
"  crux  "  of  the  engineers  planning  the  Siberian 
Railway,  and  might  have  been  designed  ex- 
pressly by  nature  to  test  their  ingenuity  to 
the  utmost.  The  largest  body  of  fresh  water 
in  the  Old  World,  it  is  only  exceeded  in  area 


Lake  Baikal. 


by  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  Africa  and  one  or 
two  of  the  great  North  American  lakes.  With 
its  southern  head  deeply  embayed  in  imprac- 
ticable mountains,  it  stretches  its  mighty 
length  for  400  miles  towards  the  Arctic  circle. 
To  turn  its  northern  extremity  was  out  of  the 
question  ;  while  to  build  a  railway  round  the 
southern  end,  where  the  mountains  in  many 
places  drop  sheer  into  3,000  feet  of  water, 
was  a  task  quite  beyond  existing  resources. 
That  this  must  be  the  ultimate  solution  was, 
of  course,  obvious,  but  meanwhile  temporary 
methods  of  overcoming  the  difficulty  had  to 
be  devised. 

The  line  of  travel  from  the  earliest  times  had 
lain  across  the  lake — in  summer  by  means  of 
the  boats  of  the  period,  in  winter  by  sledges 
over  the  ice.  The  lake  is  ice- 
bound as  a  rule  from  December  Travelling  over 
to  April,  and  during  that  part 
of  the  year  the  bulk  of  the  traffic  used  to  pass. 
Transit  by  sledge  only  lasts  three  months,  as, 
owing  to  unexplained  reasons,  for  some  weeks 


A    ■  ".MlXi-.iJ  IKAl.N    u.S     1111.    MAXCHURIAN 

RAILWAY. 
{From  "  The  Real  Siberia,"  by  John  Foster  Fraser.) 

after  the  ice  is  thick  enough  to  bear  the  weight 
there  constantly  appear  fissures  several  feet 
wide  and  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  or  more 
long.  When  these  fissures  are  frozen  over 
others  appear  and  cause  considerable  delay. 


90 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


As  the  grip  of  frost  tightened,  a  track  was 
marked  out  by  pine  trees  stuck  in  the  ice,  and 
a  contractor  was  engaged  to  keep  the  road  in 
repair  and  in  a  safe  state  for  the  passage  of 
the  mails.  A  more  dreary  track  than  this 
40  miles  of  frozen  road  it  is  impossible  to  con- 
ceive, and  it  may  well  stand  for  a  type  of  the 
little  path  trodden  by  the  hopeless  bands  of 
exiles,  goaded  by  the  whips  of  Cossacks, 
towards  the  deadly  mines  and  prison-houses 
of  Sakhalin  and  Kamchatka.  Nor  were  the 
dangers  of  nature  alone  to  be  apprehended. 
So  lonely  a  drive  gave  every  opportunity  to 
the  wandering,  escaped  convicts  and  roaming 
outcasts  to  prey  upon  the  travellers  crossing 
the  ice,  and  robbery  and  murder  were  fre- 
quent. Outrages  increased  in  number  with  the 
augmented  traffic  resulting  from  the  arrival  of 
the  Siberian  rail-head  at  Irkutsk  and  the  shores 
of  the  lake.  Here  is  a  typical  case.  A  gang 
of  convicts  marching  across  the  ice  observed 
traces  of  blood  upon  the  snow.  Examina- 
tion led  to  the  discovery  of  the  body  of  a 
baby  girl  buried  in  the  snow,  but  still  alive. 
Inquiries  proved  that  a  sledge-driver  of  bad 
reputation  had  set  out  a  few  hours  previously 
from  the  south-eastern  shore  of  the  lake  to 
convey  two  poor  women,  each  of  them  accom- 
panied by  two  little  children.  This  wretch 
had  long  been  under  suspicion,  for  he  had 
been  known  on  several  occasions  to  set  out 
with  a  passenger  to  cross  the  lake,  and  to 
reach  home  alone  long  before  he  could  have 
had  time  to  make  the  return  journey. 
Further  search  revealed  the  bodies  of  the 
two  women  and  three  children  buried  in  the 
snow,  where  the  brutal  driver  had  left  them 
after  beating  them  to  death  with  his  whip. 
Until  the  Circum-Baikal  line  should  be  un- 
dertaken and  completed  there  was  no  alter- 
native to  the  use  of  sledges  for  crossing 
the  lake  during  the  quarter  of  the  year  this 
method  was  available  ;  but  the  joint  difficulties 
of  the  open  water  of  summer,  subject  to  ter- 
rible storms  during  which  waves  are  raised  to 


the  height  of  six  and  seven  feet,  and  the  rotten 
ice  of  spring  and  winter,  were  met  by  a  re- 
markable combination  in  one  frame  of  a  huge 
ice-breaker  and  steam-ferry,  equal  to  con- 
veying an  entire  train  and  at  the  same  time 

forcing  its  way  through  ice  up  _ 

«,    .         .        ,  .  ,  *      The  "Baikal." 

to    3^   leet   in   thickness.     An 

order  was  given  to  the  firm  of  Sir  W.  G. 
Armstrong,  Whitworth,  and  Co.,  of  Newcastle, 
to  build  the  ice-breaker  Baikal,  which  was 
taken  out  in  parts  and  put  together,  under 
the  superintendence  of  a  Sunderland  engineer, 
at  the  village  of  Listvenitchaia  by  Russian 
workmen,  drawn  mainly  from  St.  Petersburg, 
and  acquainted  with  shipbuilding.  The  carry- 
ing through  of  this  difficult  enterprise  has  been 
described  already  in  a  very  interesting  article. 
(See  Vol.  i.,  pp.  65  foil.) 

The  Baikal  proved  a  complete  success,  and 
led  to  an  order  for  a  second  vessel  of  the  same 
type,  but  of  smaller  size,  the  Angara,  which 
also  was  taken  out  in  sections  and  constructed 
on  the  lake.  The  cost  of  the  two  ice-breakers, 
of  the  stages  for  embarking  trains,  and  of 
the  breakwaters  to  provide  shelter  from 
storms,  amounted  to  £596,250.  This  large  out- 
lay has  been  well  justified,  for,  though  their 
occupation  as  train-carriers  ceased  upon  the 
opening  of  the  Baikal  Ring  Railway,  the  two 
ice-breakers  have  been  extremely  useful  in 
assisting  the  navigation  on  the  lake. 

The  Trans-Baikal  section  of  the  railway 
took  off  from  the  landing-stage  at  Missovaya 
on  the  south-eastern  shore,  having  for  its 
objective  Khabarovsk  on  the 
river  Amur.  Political  events 
profoundly  modified  the  original 
scheme,  and  the  main  line  halted  abruptly  at 
Stretensk,  on  the  river  Chilka,  686  miles  from 
Missovaya'  and  4,055  east  of  Moscow.  Thence 
the  journey  has  to  be  continued  to  Khabarovsk 
by  steamer  down  the  Chilka  and  the  Amur, 
which  forms  the  boundary  between  Siberia 
and  the  Chinese  province  of  Manchuria.  At 
Khabarovsk  the  frontier  turns  sharply  south- 


Trans - 
Baikalia. 


THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 


91 


ward,  defining  a  broad  belt  of  Russian  territory 
between  Manchuria  and  the  coast.  At  the 
southern  end  of  this  maritime  province  lies 
Vladivostok,  the  "  Mistress  of  the  East,"  and 
the  real  terminus  of  the  Siberian  Railway. 
The  construction  of  this  section  presented  far 
Sterner  physical  difficulties  than  had  been 
faced  hitherto.     To  cross  the  Yablonoi  Moun- 


The  unlooked-for  event  which  had  pushed 

the  Amur  Railway  project  into  the  background 

was  the  war  between  China  and  Japan  in  1894- 

95.     An    immediate    result    of 

this  conflict  was  the  "lease" 

by  China   to    Russia  of    Port       ,^  ,, 
■^  Railway. 

Arthur   and    Ta-lien-wan   (the 

latter   place  being  re-named  Dalny — that  is, 


THE    STATION    AT    BOGOTOL. 


tains  the  line  has  to  climb  3,412  feet.  The 
formidable  gradients  required  thorough  methods 
and  heavy  rails,  the  last  supported  by  ties  set 
in  cement.  Cuttings  are  numerous,  and,  owing 
to  the  intense  cold  of  this  high  region,  the 
frost-bound  earth  had  to  be  blasted  with 
dynamite  and  all  masonry  to  be  built  in 
warmed  shelters.  In  mild  weather  floods  gave 
constant  trouble. 

Rail-head  reached  Stretensk  in  July  1900, 
a  little  more  than  eight  years  from  the  start 
at  Tchelyabinsk.  The  line  had  leapt  forward 
at  record  speed.  Omsk  was 
reached  in  1895,  after  three 
years'  work  ;  Obi  in  1896  ;  Irkutsk  in  1898. 
By  the  same  date  the  Ussuri  section  had  been 
completed,  making  an  average  rate  of  con- 
struction, as  has  been  said,  of  about  a  mile 
a  day. 


Quick  Work. 


"  Far  off  "),  carrying  with  it  the  right  to  lay 
down  railways  through  Manchuria,  to  bring 
these  seaports  into  direct  communication  with 
the  Siberian  system.  This  concession  was  of 
inestimable  value  to  Russian  ambitions.  Sur- 
veys were  made  promptly  to  establish  the 
most  suitable  route  for  a  track  to  connect  the 
Trans-Baikal  Railway  with  Vladivostok.  The 
surveyors  selected  a  line  leaving  the  main 
track  at  Kaidalovo,  72  miles  east  of  Chita, 
and  running  thence  in  a  south-eastern  direc- 
tion across  Mongolia  and  Manchuria  to  Tsitsikar 
and  Harbin,  and  from  Harbin  almost  due  east 
to  join  the  Ussuri  Railway  at  Nikolskoye,  68 
miles  north  of  Vladivostok.  This  line  was 
called  officially  "  The  East  Chinese  Section." 
It  may  be  mentioned  that,  in  true  Russian 
fashion,  the  station  of  Tsitsikar  lies  21  miles 
from  the  town  of  that  name.     The  length  of 


92 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


this  section  is  1,200  miles,  890  of  which  He  in 
Chinese  territory.  Construction  was  begun 
forthwith  from  both  ends,  and  pressed  forward 
with  a  haste  that  became  more  and  more 
feverish  as  the  political  situation  grew  more 
critical.  Thousands  of  Chinese,  Manchus,  and 
Koreans,  the  last-named  wearing  their  white 
clothes  and  using  curious  little  shovels  and 
very  small  baskets  to  move  the  earth,  were 
employed  under  Russian  overseers.  Taught 
by  experience,  the  engineers  laid  down  a 
temporary  contractors'  line  and  a  well-built 
permanent  way  alongside  it. 

This  line  constituted  the  original  conces- 
sion ;  but  meanwhile  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment, assuming  for  the  nonce  the  transparent 
alias  of  "  The  Russo-Chinese  Bank,"  had  ob- 
tained powers  to  run  a  branch  southwards 
from  Harbin  to  Dalny  and  Port  Arthur,  and 
pushed  it  forward  with  all  possible  speed. 
These  lines,  which  figured  so  largely  in  the 
Russo-Japanese  War,  run  for  the  most  part 
through  very  desolate  regions,  including  a 
portion  of  the  Gobi  Desert,  and  were  most 
jealously  watched  and  protected  by  the  con- 
structing power.  Chinese  and  Manchus  were 
not  allowed  to  live  within  twenty  miles  on 
either  side  of  the  track.  A  large  force  of 
mounted  Cossacks  was  quartered  in  squat, 
whitewashed  "  posts  "  all  along  the  railway. 
Beside  every  "  post  "  rose  a  high  wooden  tower, 
from  the  top  of  which  a  lookout  could  be  kept 
for  bands  of  Chun-huses,  or  marauding  Man- 
chus, the  pest  of  the  country. 

The  northern  line  is  still  in  Russian  hands, 
and  remains  the  direct  route  to  Vladivostok. 
The  branch  from  Harbin  southwards  has 
passed  into  other  keeping.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  heavy  fighting  of  the  Japanese 
war  developed  upon  its  lower  stretches,  and 
how,  during  the  siege  of  Port  Arthur,  the 
Russian  forces  were  steadily  pushed  back- 
wards from  Liao-Yang  and  from  Mukden, 
and  at  the  conclusion  of  peace  were  lying 
entrenched  in  defence  of  Harbin,  the  capture 


of  which  junction  would  have  entailed  the  fall 
of  Vladivostok. 

The    Ussuri  Railway,   begun  in    1891,   was 
at   first   hurriedly,   and  therefore  badly,   laid 
down.     As  construc- 
tion   proceeded    the 
importance     of     the 
line  waned,  and  the 


A    WATER   TOWER    ON    THE    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 
{From  "  The  Real  Siberia,"  hy  John  Foster  Fraser.) 

first  through  train  from  Khabarovsk  to  Vladi- 
vostok—a distance  of  483  miles — did  not  run 
until  September  1897.    The  line 

has    no    outstanding    features         ®.,  ^^"" 

Railway. 

of    interest.     Laid    along    the 

narrow  valley  of  the  Ussuri  River,  it  taxed 
the  engineers  only  in  the  making  of  large  iron 
bridges,  notably  those  across  the  Kia,  Khor, 
and  Bikin.  Here,  as  in  West  and  Central 
Siberia,  an  excellent  system  of  water-carriage 
was  an  auxiliary  of  inestimable  value,  for  it 
allowed  work  to  be  carried  on  in  several 
separate  sections  at  the  same  time,  and  also 
relieved  the  through  track  of  the  conveyance 
of  much  railway  material. 

Despite  the  expenditure  of  energy  and  money 
lavished  in  driving  through  the  Far  Eastern 
lines   against   time,    the   Russians   never   lost 
sight   of   the   supreme   impor- 
tance of  proceeding  with  the       ^  .^         ^ 
construction  of  the  Baikal  Ring 
Railway.     The    tremendous    difficulties    con- 
fronting the  engineers  on  this  part  of  the  route 
have  already  been  alluded  to.     A  start  was 
made  in  1899  on  both  shores  of  the  lake,  but 
the  two  sections  were  not  joined  until  Sep- 


THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 


93 


tember  25,  1904,  when  Prince  Khilkoff  himself 
took  the  first  train  of  seven  cars  over  the 
western  section  from  the  Baikal  station  near 
Irkutsk  to  Kultuck,  57  miles  away.  The 
eastern  section,  from  Kultuck  to  Missovaya, 
is  106  miles  in  length.  Both  sections  were 
finished  at  that  time,  and  the  station  build- 
ings were  completed,  though  much  work  re- 
mained to  be  done  at  various  points  owing 
to  the  extremely  varied  character  of  the  region 
traversed  by  the  line.  In  the  first  sub-section 
of  the  western  part  the  numerous  valleys  gave 
the  surveying  engineers  a  freer  hand  in  decid- 
ing the  route,  but  in  the  second  sub-section 
the  rocky  shore  of  the  lake  had  to  be  followed. 
Thus  a  great  deal  of  tunnelling  and  blasting 
was  inevitable,  work  for  which  the  Russian 
labourers  were  not  adapted  by  experience  or 
training  ;  so  the  Czar's  restriction  as  to  the 
employment  of  foreigners  was  waived,  and 
large  numbers  of  Italian  workmen  and  navvies 
were  engaged.  Six  miles  from  the  start,  after 
a  marshy  region,  followed  by  a  stretch  of  sand, 
had  been  passed,  a  rocky  headland,  coming 
do^\^l  to  the  water's  edge,  had  to  be  cut 
through  for  a  distance  of  1,100  yards.  From 
the  twenty-first  mile  to  the  thirty-first  the 
mountains  recede,  and  the  line  passes  along 
an  undulating  terrace,  and  is  laid  at  some 
distance  from  the  lake,  which  it  rejoins  at 
the  forty-first  mile. 

In  the  western  section  the  contractors  had 
to  build  thirty-three  tunnels  of  a  total  length 
of  7,830  yards,  and  two  hundred  bridges  and 
viaducts,  with  cuttings  95 
yards  deep  in  places — work 
necessitated  by  a  succession 
of  headlands,  ravines,  and  inlets.  To  add  to 
the  difficulties,  the  stone  was  found  to  be  un- 
suitable for  tunnel-making,  and  the  bore  had 
to  be  lined  with  masonry  of  great  strength. 
On  each  middle  stone  of  the  tunnel  arches  are 
carved  an  axe  and  an  anchor  crossed,  while 
below  the  coping  of  the  entrances  one  sees 
in  big  letters  the  words,  at  the  western  end, 


Heavy 
Tunnelling. 


"  To  the  Great  Ocean,"  at  the  eastern,  "  To 
the  Atlantic  Ocean." 

The  total  cost  of  laying  down  the  Ring 
Railway  (up  to  the  late  summer  of  1904)  was 
£5,678,206,  or  £34,906  per  mile.  Consider- 
ing the  vital  importance  to 
Russia  of  having  the  line  laid 


Labour 
Difficulties. 


down  as  speedily  as  possible 
in  view  of  her  political  designs  in  the  Far 
East,  it  seems  strange  that  greater  care  was 
not  devoted  to  carrying  out  this  part  of  the 
work.  In  the  first  place,  the  work  was  let 
out  to  contractors.  Probably  this  departure 
from  custom  was  advisable  under  the  changed 
conditions,  but  the  contracts  were  loosely 
drawn,  and  allowed  subletting,  a  fruitful  cause 
of  dispute  and  delay.  Some  of  the  contractors 
showed  great  indifference  and  neglect,  and 
their  shortcomings  gave  rise  to  frequent  acci- 
dents and  loss  of  life,  easily  avoidable  by  the 
exercise  of  ordinary  care  and  control.  The 
injuries,  fatal  and  otherwise,  were  out  of  all 
proportion  to  what  they  should  have  been 
under  usual  conditions,  even  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  enormous  quantities  of  rock 
which  had  to  be  removed  by  blasting — 400,000 
cubic  fathoms  for  the  tunnels,  and  461,700  for 
the  permanent  way.  The  men  employed  were 
in  the  main  a  wild  and  lawless  set,  among 
whom  the  Jewish  pedlars  of  vodka,  or  wliite 
rye  brandy,  did  a  roaring  trade.  Dynamite 
in  such  hands  spelt  disaster.  The  Russian 
Government,  hard  pressed  by  the  Japanese 
in  Manchuria,  had  to  resort  finally  to  the  costly 
expedient  of  offering  premiums  to  the  con- 
tractors for  rapid  work. 

In  laying  down  this  line  round  Lake  Baikal 
the  engineers  turned  to  account  in  two  ways 
the  experience  gathered  in  building  the  main 
line  from  Tchelyabinsk  to  Irkutsk.  First,  they 
used  rails  weighing  72  lbs.  to  the  yard  instead 
of  the  light  metals  of  54  lbs.  which  were  held 
sufficient  for  the  traffic  across  Siberia.  Second, 
due  care  was  exercised  in  regard  to  curves  and 
gradients.     Thanks  to  the  opening  of  the  Ring 


94 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Railway,  and  the  fact  that  numerous  sidings 
had  been  laid  all  along  the  other  sections, 
Prince  Khilkoff  was  able  forthwith  to  increase 
to  seventeen  the  number  of  trains  running 
daily  from  Europe  to  the  seat  of  war.  It  is 
no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  success  of 
this  piece  of  engineer- 
ing was  one  of  the 
principal  factors  which 
enabled  Russia  to  con- 
clude a  disastrous  war 
with  a  not  dishonour- 
able peace. 

Under  circumstances 
thus  impressive  did 
the  dream  of  the  Czar 
Alexander  become  a 
reality.  The  remotest 
confines  of  his  realm 
were  linked  together 
by  an  uninterrupted 
band  of  steel,  stretch- 
ing from  the  German 
frontier  to  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific.  Much 
remained    to    do,    for 

Siberia  still  stood  but  on  the  threshold  of 
civilization,    and    many    millions    have    since 

been   spent    upon    the    recon- 
e  Kai  way   g^^^g^iQ^  Qf  h^q  main  line  alone. 
of  To-=day. 

Settlers    and   traders  are   still 

pouring  into  Siberia  almost  as  fast  as  trains 
can  be  found  to  take  them,  and  already  its 
agricultural  produce,  including  butter  and 
eggs  for  our  breakfast  tables,  has  established 
a  place  in  the  British  markets.  Our  Japanese 
and  Chinese  mails  now  cross  Siberia,  with  a 
considerable  gain  in  time  over  the  "  All 
British  "  route  via  Canada.  To-day  a  traveller 
to  the  Far  East  may  take  his  seat  at  Ostend 
in  one  of  the  sumptuous  wagon-lits  of  the 
Trans-Continental  express,  and  not  have  to 
change  his  carriage  twice  before  he  descends 
at  Vladivostok.  Over  the  Siberian  line,  with 
its  now  well-ballasted  and  well-graded  track, 


COSSACKS    GUARDING    THE 
{From  "  The  Real  Siberia,' 


the    commodious    broad-gauge    coaches    will 
carry  him  as  smoothly,  though 

possibly  not  quite  so  safely,  as        _    **^*" 

T7     1      1        A        1  i     (       Robbers. 

m    England.      An   element   oi 

peril  always  associated  with  railway  travel  in 
lonely    lands — to    wit,   the    "  holding-up  "   of 

trains  by  armed  ban- 
ditti— has  to  be  ap- 
prehended in  Siberia 
as  elsewhere  ;  but  con- 
sidering the  generally 
disturbed  condition  of 
Russia  during  the  last 
few  years,  outrages  of 
this  kind  have  not 
been  conspicuously 
frequent.  One  such 
occurrence  upon  the 
Siberian  line  may  be 
mentioned.  As  re- 
cently as  August  of 
last  year  armed  rob- 
bers removed  the  rails 
for  sixteen  yards  at 
a  deserted  spot  near 
Omsk.  The  next  train 
that  came  along  was  wrecked.  The  robbers 
fired  upon  the  train  when  it  left  the  metals, 
but  were  kept  at  a  distance  by  the  fire 
from  the  soldiers  travelling  on  board  as 
guards,  until  help  arrived  from  Omsk,  when 
they  were  put  to  flight  without  having 
effected  their  purpose  of  pillaging  the  mail- 
van,  which  they  knew  to  contain  a  very  large 
sum  of  money  and  other  valuables.  American 
operators  would  probably  have  proved  them- 
selves more  skilful  and  successful. 

The  forecast  of  the  Russian  Government 
that  when  the  Trans-Siberian  line  was  in  full 
working  order  the  journey  from  London  to 
Shanghai  would  be  reduced  to 
fifteen  or  sixteen  days  has 
been  substantially  realized. 
This  railway  affords  the  shortest  and  cheapest 
route  from  Europe  to  China  and  Japan,  and 


LINE. 
'  by  John  Foster  Fraser. 


The  Future  of 
the  Railway. 


THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY. 


95 


the  promise  is  held  out  that  it  will  eventually 
reduce  the  journey  from  England  to  Australia 
to  some  twenty-two  days.  As  a  commercial 
undertaking  it  is  proving  eminently  successful  ; 
and  when,  if  ever,  honesty  in  public  adminis- 
tration is  developed  as  a  Russian  virtue,  the 
system  must  become  a  national  asset  of  in- 
calculable value.  Mid  and  Eastern  Siberia, 
as  well  as  the  Ural  district,  are  known  to  be 
among  the  most  richly  mineralized  regions  of 
the  world,  thick  seams  of  coal  and  deposits 
of  gold,  both  alluvial  and  quartzite,  lying 
ready  to  the  miner's  pick.  The  agricultural 
outlook  has  already  been  touched  on.  To 
aid  and  supplement  the  railways  in  the  task 


of  gathering  the  lavish  gifts  of  nature,  there 
is  already  in  existence  a  magnificent  network 
of  waterways,  both  natural  and  artificial, 
soon  to  be  greatly  improved  by  the  con- 
struction of  further  canals,  some  of  which, 
as  already  projected,  will  be  works  of  the  f^st 
magnitude.  Without  doubt,  engineering  as 
applied  to  ways  of  communication  has  a  mighty 
future  before  it  in  Siberia  and  its  physical 
complement,  European  Russia  ;  and  just  as 
this  vast  expanse  forms  the  major  part  of  the 
greatest  land  mass  of  the  world,  so  doubtless 
will  it  eventually  become  the  scene  of  the 
grandest,  in  their  different  forms,  of  the 
achievements  of  the  constructive  engineer. 


W^^ 


A   TRESTLE    BRIDGE    IN    THE    "  TAIGA        OR    FOREST    COUNTRY 


THE  NEW  OROTON  DAM  AND  RESERVOIR. 


{Photo,  P.  P.  PuUis. 


The  Dam  is,  next  to  the  Great  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  largest  masonry  structure  in  the  world.     It  impounds 

32,000,000,000  gallons  of  water. 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  NEW  YORK 

CITY. 

BY    JOHN    GEORGE    LEIGH. 


ON  June  21,  1907,  on  the  side  of  one  of 
many  mountains  soon  to  be  perfor- 
ated by  a  mammoth  aqueduct,  Mr. 
M'Clennan,  Mayor  of  New  York,  cut  the  first 
sod  of  perhaps  the  greatest  municipal  engin- 
eering work  ever  undertaken. 

The  enterprise  in  question  is  the  third  of  a 
series,  all  designed,  within  the  comparatively 
short  period  of  seventy  years,  with  a  single 
object — that  of  furnishing  New  York  with  a 
reliable  and,  in  the  estimation  of  its  popula- 
tion, sufficient  water  supply. 

Reasons  for  New  York's  haste  and  anxiety 
to  secure  a  further  source  of  water  supply 
will  be  found  in  the  city's  geographical  posi- 
tion, its  rapid  and  continu- 
ous growth,  and,  it  must  be 
added,  its  people's  ungoverned 
and  apparently  ungovernable 
Shut  in  on  the  east  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  New  York  is  prevented  by 

(1.408) 


New  York's 

Demand 
for  Water. 

wastefulness. 


the  laws  of  New  Jersey  from  tapping  any 
near  source  of  supply  on  the  west.  To  the 
east  of  the  Croton  watershed  is  that  of  the 
Housatonic  River,  capable  of  yielding  an 
abundance  of  excellent  water  ;  but  this  is  in 
another  State,  Connecticut,  and  therefore  ex- 
cluded from  consideration. 

The  present  population  of  Greater  New  York 
is  estimated  at  four  and  a  half  millions,  and 
the  average  annual  growth  is  115,000.  This 
means,  if  the  same  increase  is 
continued — and  of  this  there 
seems  every  likelihood — that 
the  population  at  the  end  of  1915  will 
be  5,260,000,  and  its  water  consumption 
700,000,000  gallons  a  day,  or  more  than 
200,000,000  in  excess  of  the  present  available 
supply. 

This  latter  is  very  largely  derived  from  the 
watershed  of  the  Croton  River,  situated  about 
35  miles  north  of  the  city,  and  having  an  area 

VOL.    III. 


Growth  of 
Population. 


98 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


of  360  square  miles,  exceeding  in  size  there- 
fore the  county  of  Middlesex.  Previous  to 
1842  the  citizens  of  New  York  had  to  depend 
for  water  on  public  wells  situated  at  the 
street  corners,  and  on  a  supply  obtained  from 
a  well  in  a  thickly-populated  district,  pumped 
by  the  Manhattan  Water  Company  into  a 
small  reservoir,  and  thence  distributed  through 


storage  capacity,  for  a  depth  of  six  feet,  of 
600,000,000  gallons.  The  most  serious  and 
troublesome  part  of  the  work,  however,  was 
the  aqueduct.  This,  for  a  distance  of  38  miles, 
was  built  entirely  of  masonry,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  sections  crossing  the  Harlem  River 
and  what  was  kno\\Ti  as  Manhattan  Valley. 
Of  these,  the  first  was  long  regarded  as  a 


//otcs 

Storage  Tfeseryars 
Tfeceiuin^      do 
0/a(  Croton  /iQueducf 
Neuf    do  do 

Bron-x  7Pn/er7lfif/-ine 
yi/&.tcrshfd  Limits 


SfA' 


MAP  SHOWING  THE  ROUTES  OF  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  CROTON  AQUEDUCTS,  THE  BRONX  RIVER  PIPE  LINE, 
AND  THE  WATERSHEDS  OF  THE  CROTON,  BRONX,  AND  BYRAM  RIVERS,  WHENCE  NEW  YORK 
DERIVES    ITS    PRESENT    WATER    SUPPLY. 


The  First 

Croton  River 

Project. 


hollow    logs    laid    in    some    of    the    principal 
thoroughfares. 

The  first  effective  step  towards  direct  muni- 
cipal control  was  taken  in  April  1835,  when  a 
plan  for  bringing  water  from  the  Croton  River 
was  submitted  to  the  popular 
vote,  and  carried  by  an  over- 
whelming majority.  Work  on 
the  project  was  begun  two 
years  later  and  continued  until  1842,  when 
water  from  the  Croton  was  distributed  to  the 
city  from  a  reservoir,  the  site  of  which  is  now 
occupied  by  a  great  public  library,  built  on 
Murray  Hill,  fronting  Fifth  Avenue  and  42nd 
and  40th  Streets. 

Judged  by  mid-nineteenth  century  standards, 
the  achievement  was  one  of  considerable  magni- 
tude. It  involved  the  construction  across  the 
Croton  River,  at  a  point  where  the  latter  was 
120  feet  wide,  of  a  dam  55  feet  high  above  the 
foundations.  Behind  this  was  formed  a  lake, 
covering  an  area  of  four  hundred  acres,  with  a 


The  First 

Croton 
Aqueduct. 


masterpiece  of  engineering,  for,  as  chroniclers 
of  the  time  remind  us,  with  many  expressions 
of  admiration,  the  river  was 
crossed  by  fifteen  arches,  seven 
of  50  feet  span  and  eight  of 
80  feet,  the  greatest  height 
from  foundations  to  the  top  of  the  masonry 
work  being  150  feet.  Over  this  bridge,  for 
a  length  of  1,450  feet,  the  water  was  carried 
in  cast-iron  pipes.  In  crossing  Manhattan 
Valley,  where  the  aqueduct  was  carried  on  a 
siphon,  iron  pipes  were  also  used. 

In  some  places,  to  avoid  deep  cuttings,  the 
aqueduct  was  built  in  tunnels.  Sixteen  of 
these,  varying  from  100  feet  to  1,260  feet  in 
length,  were  excavated,  the  total  amount  of 
rock  removed  being  400,000  cubic  yards.  To 
us  to-day  this  seems  a  small  matter  ;  but  it 
must  have  been  a  difficult  task  seventy  years 
ago,  when  gunpowder  was  the  only  explosive 
employed,  and  the  holes  had  to  be  driven  by 
chisel  and  hammer  to  an  average  depth  of 


THE    WATER    SUPPLY    OF    NEW    YORK    CITY. 


99 


two  feet.  The  receiving  reservoir,  situated  be- 
tween 79th  and  86th  Streets,  covered  nearly 
thirty-one  acres,  and  had  a  capacity  of 
180,000,000  gallons.  The  total  cost  of  the 
aqueduct,  including  land  and  interest  on 
water  stock,  amounted  to  about  £2,500,000. 

In  1849  the  State  Legislature  created  the 
Croton  Aqueduct  Department,  giving  it  full 
charge  of  the  city's  water  supply.  The  new 
authority  at  once  found  itself  faced  by  diffi- 
culties, caused  by  constantly  recurring  leak- 
ages due  to  poor  material  and  workmanship, 
and  by  continued  demands  for  increased 
supply.  When  the  aqueduct  was  constructed, 
a  daily  supply  of  30,000,000  gallons  was  con- 
templated, and  deemed  ample  even  for  a 
distant  future.  This  estimate,  however,  had 
not  sufficiently  taken  into  account  two  factors 
— the  irrepressible  wastefulness  of  the  popula- 
tion, and  the  latter's  phenomenal  growth. 

The  first  step  taken  to  meet  the  increasing 
demand  was  to  lay  an  additional  pipe,  7  feet 
6J  inches  in  diameter,  which  brought  the 
capacity  of  the  aqueduct  up 
to  60,000,000  gallons  per  day. 
This  work  was  completed  in 
1861,  and  was  followed  by  the  construction 
of  a  large  reservoir  in  Central  Park,  having 
a  storage  capacity  of  nearly  1,000,000,000 
gallons.  Then  came,  in  1864  and  1865,  great 
droughts,  which  led  to  the  building  of  another 
dam,  now  known  as  Boyd's  Corner  Reservoir, 
across  the  west  branch  of  the  Croton  River. 
This  dam,  completed  in  1873,  is  670  feet  long 
and  57  feet  high,  and  created  an  additional 
storage  of  2,700,000,000  gallons  of  water. 
The  relief  afforded  by  these  works,  however, 
proved  merely  temporary.  The  years  1876 
and  1877  were  so  dry  that  the  city  was  threat- 
ened with  water  famines,  with  the  result  that 
it  was  decided  again  to  increase  the  supply 
and  the  quantity  of  water  stored  up. 

The  scheme  dra\^Ti  up — completed  in  1884 
— gave  an  additional  daily  supply  of  15,000,000 
gallons.     Its  leading  features  were — (1)  a  dam 


Second 
Pipe  laid. 


Stili  a 
Shortage. 


converting  the  two  Rye  Ponds  into  a  lake, 
with  a  storage  capacity  of  1,336,000,000 
gallons  ;  (2)  a  dam  across  the  Bronx  River 
at  Kensico,  forming  a  reservoir  with  a  capa- 
city of  1,627,000,000  gallons  ;  (3)  a  dam  across 
the  Byram  River,  creating  a  lake  of  180,000,000 
gallons  ;  (4)  a  channel,  3,800  feet  long,  unit- 
ing these  two  sources  of  supply  ;  and  (5)  a 
pipe  line  from  the  Kensico  Reservoir  to 
Williamsbridge,  the  site  of  a  receiving  and 
settling  basin. 

Large  and  sufficient  as  it  appeared  to  be 
when  first  mooted,  this  enterprise  had  scarcely 
been  commenced  when  it  was  demonstrated 
to  be  absolutely  inadequate  to 
the  city's  needs.  In  1881,  Mr. 
Newton,  then  chief  engineer, 
presented  a  report  to  the  Croton  Aqueduct 
Commission,  to  the  effect  that  the  maximum 
safe  discharge  available  from  the  aqueduct — 
namely,  95,000,000  gallons  per  day — had  been 
supplied  for  several  years  ;  that  to  meet  the 
prospective  wants  of  ever-growing  New  York 
recourse  must  be  had  to  a  much  larger  water- 
shed ;  and  that  there  should  be  built  an 
entirely  new  aqueduct  capable  of  bringing  to 
the  city  at  least  200,000,000  gallons  a  day, 
even  in  the  driest  years. 

So  convincing  were  these  representations 
that  the  State  Legislature  in  1883  accepted 
the  plans  prepared  by  Mr.  Newton,  and  en- 
trusted the  construction  of  the  new  water- 
works to  a  Board  of  Aqueduct  Commissioners, 
consisting  of  the  mayor  and  controller  of  the 
city,  ex  officio,  and  four  members  nominated 
by  the  former. 

The  new  scheme  included  the  construction  of 
a  masonry  dam  across  the  Croton  River,  near 
Quaker  Bridge,  to  form  a  reservoir  with  a  sur- 
face of  3,635  acres  and  a  stor- 
age capacity  of  32,000,000,000 


The  New 
Croton  Project. 


gallons.  The  reservoir  was  to 
impound  water  collected  over  an  area  of  361 
square  miles,  and  ensure  a  minimum  daily 
supply  of  250,000,000  gallons.     Leading  from 


100 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


ANOTHER    VIEW    OF   THE    SPILLWAY,    NEW    CROTON   DAM,    SHOWING   THE   CHANNEL    WHICH   LEADS    OFF 

THE    SURPLUS    WATER. 


it  there  was  to  be  an  aqueduct,  12  feet  in 
diameter,  passing  under  the  Harlem  River 
and  Manhattan  Valley.  This  aqueduct,  begun 
in  January  1885  and  completed  in  July  1890, 
consists  of  three  parts  :  a  masonry  conduit, 
nearly  24  miles  long,  from  Croton  Lake  to  a 
great  receiving  reservoir  of  l,900,000,000gallons 
at  Jerome  Park  ;  a  masonry  conduit  under 
pressure  thence  for  a  further  distance  of 
nearly  7  miles  to  a  gatehouse  near  Amsterdain 
Avenue  ;  and  a  pipe  line  from  this  point  to 
the  receiving  reservoir  in  what  is  now  the 
heart  of  the  city  at  Central  Park.  (See  map 
on  page  98.) 

Of  the  masonry  sections  of  the  conduit, 
29 J  miles  are  constructed  in  tunnel.  For 
blasting,   exclusive   of   the   quantity   used   in 


sinking  the  shafts,  over  5,800,000  lbs.  of 
dynamite  were  employed ;  and  for  lining 
the  tunnel  some  163,000,000  bricks  were 
required. 

At  the  public  hearings  held  by  the  Aqueduct 
Commissioners  in  1883  and  1884  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  proposed  plans,  considerable 
opposition  was  manifested  to  the  construction 
of  the  Quaker  Bridge  Dam,  which  was  to  be 
100  feet  higher  than  the  highest  masonry  dam 
then  existing.  Consequently,  it  was  not  until 
1892  that  the  contract  for  this  part  of  the 
scheme  was  awarded.  In  the  meanwhile, 
however,  to  satisfy  the  popular  demand  for 
"  more  water  at  once — or  sooner,"  the  Com- 
missioners and  Department  of  Public  Works 
proceeded  with  the  construction  of  a  number 


THE    WATER    SUPPLY    OF    NEW    YORK    CITY. 


101 


£as/^  Branch 


//eu>  Croton  \ 


DIAGRAM    SHOWING    RESERVOIRS    SUPPLYING    THE 
NEW    CROTON    AQUEDUCT. 

of  storage  reservoirs  on  branches  and  affluents 
of  the  Croton  River. 

Early  in  1891  the  Aqueduct  Commissioners 
resolved  to  construct  across  the  Croton  River, 
about  \\  miles  above  Quaker  Bridge,  the 
already    much-discussed    high 


The  New 
Croton  Dam. 


dam.  As  originally  designed, 
this  was  to  consist  of  a  central 
masonry  structure,  600  feet  long  ;  an  earthen 
dam,  with  masonry  core-wall  of  the  same 
length  ;  and  a  masonry  overflow- weir,  1,000 
feet  long.  In  1896,  however,  it  was  decided 
to  extend  the  central  portion  110  feet  to  the 
south,  and  correspondingly  reduce  the  length 
of  the  earthen  dam.  The  work  was  well  in 
hand,  and  its  early  completion  seemed  assured, 
when,  in  1901,  Mr.  W.  R.  Hill,  the  newly- 
appointed  chief  engineer,  observed  in  the  core- 
wall  some  small  but,  to  his  mind,  ominous 
cracks.  His  prompt  action  following  this  dis- 
covery in  all  probability  saved  New  York  from 
a  great  catastrophe  ;  for  when  the  suspected 
portion  of  the  dam  was  removed,  prior  to  the 
substitution  of  masonry,  the  foundation  was 
found  absolutely  unreliable.  The  changes  in 
the  plans  now  deemed  necessary  caused  such 
delay  in  the  construction  of  the  dam  that  it 
was  not  until  the  middle  of  1907 — nearly 
fifteen  years  after  ground  was  first  broken— 
that  the  work  could  be  pronounced  complete. 
From  the  photographs  reproduced  in  this 
article  one  may  gather  a  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  architecture 
and  imposing  appearance  of 
the  finished  structure.  No  pictorial  repre- 
sentation, however,  can  convey  an  adequate 


Its  Huge 
Dimensions. 


impression  of  the  dam's  mammoth  propor- 
tions. No  one,  for  instance,  unacquainted 
with  the  actual  dimensions,  would  imagine 
that  the  height  from  the  ground-level  to 
the  crest  of  the  dam  is  160  feet.  The  portion 
of  the  dam,  moreover,  seen  above-ground 
constitutes  but  one-third  of  the  actual  mass 
of  masonry  in  the  structure.  This  extends 
137  feet  below  ground  in  the  centre  of  the 
valley,  where  the  thickness  of  the  dam  upon 
the  foundations  exceeds  200  feet,  thence 
narrowing  symmetrically  to  18  feet  at  the 
crest.  The  length  of  the  dam  from  the  southern 
abutment  to  the  bridge  is  1,168  feet,  and  that 
of  the  spillway  from  the  bridge  to  its  terminus 
up  the  valley  1,000  feet,  making  a  total  length 
of  masonry  of  2,168  feet.  The  spillway  pro- 
vides ample  security  against  damage  by  sudden 
floods.  As  the  waters  flow  over  it  they  enter 
a  wide  channel  blasted  in  the  rocky  side  of 
the  hill,  are  then  led  beneath  the  steel  arch 
bridge,  and  finally  find  their  way,  by  means 
of  an  artificial  channel,  into  the  old  bed  of 
the  Croton  River. 

Before  the  masonry  of  the  New  Croton  Dam 
could  be  built  in  place,  it  was  necessary  to 
excavate  1,750,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  and 
425,000  cubic  yards  of  rock.  The  greater 
part  of  this  material  was  carried  down  the 
valley  and  dumped  into  spoil  banks,  extend- 
ing in  some  places  many  thousands  of  feet. 
Although  much  of  the  debris  was  used  for 
restoring  the  original  bed  of  the  valley,  there 

£  ■  aia  o 

^ \     Qyerf/omr  £.toAO 

\  I 


ffjr»rB*4£:_'43_o_  \ 


!5 


£  -*/.o 


SECTION   OF   THE    NEW   CROTON   DAM. 


102 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


yet  remained,  when  the  dam  was  completed, 
many  unsightly  heaps,  since  utilized  to  advan- 
tage in  the  formation  of  an  ornamental  park 
on  the  downstream  side  of  the  structure. 

The  next  great  enterprise  of  the  Aqueduct 
Commissioners  to  be  completed  was  the  Cross 
River  Dam  and  Reservoir.  The  contract, 
awarded  in  June  1905,  pro- 
vided that  the  work  should 
be  completed  in  twenty-six 
months,  and  this  condition — allowing  for  time 
lost  owing  to  an  injunction  obtained  against 
the  Commissioners — was  effectively  complied 


The  Cross 
River  Dam. 


masonry,  is  about  840  feet  long  and  175  feet 
in  extreme  height,  with  a  width  of  23  feet 
under  the  coping  and  115  feet  at  the  base. 
At  the  southern  end  the  dam  terminates  with 
an  abutment,  from  which  a  masonry  core- 
wall  is  built  for  about  100  feet  into  the  hillside. 
A  circular  structure,  called  a  bastion,  and  a 
waste  weir,  240  feet  long,  are  built  at  the 
other  end.  The  foundations  of  the  dam  are 
carried  down  to  solid  rock  about  40  feet  below 
the  original  low-water  level  of  the  river.  The 
construction  of  another  large  storage  reservoir 
at  Croton  Falls   was   begun  in    1906,   and  is 


CROSS    RIVER    DAM,    SHOWING    CONSTRUCTION. 

with.  Special  features  of  this  undertaking 
were  the  installation  by  the  contractors  of  a 
combined  system  of  multiple  cableways  and 
derricks,  the  provision  of  an  equipment  more 
extensive  than  is  usual  in  the  case  of  larger 
works,  and  the  use  of  moulded  concrete  blocks 
instead  of  cut  stone  in  the  face  of  the  dam. 
The  main  part  of  the  latter,  built  of  cyclopean 


expected  to  be  completed  early  in  1910.  The 
magnitude  of  the  works  undertaken  with  a 
view  to  the  increase  and  improvement  of 
the  supply  from  the  Croton  watershed  may 
be  estimated  from  the  fact  that  the  expendi- 
tures of  the  Croton  Aqueduct  Commissioners 
alone,  during  the  twelve  years  ended  in  1906, 
amounted  to  close  upon  £6,000,000. 


THE    WATER    SUPPLY    OF    NEW    YORK    CITY.  103 


CROSS    RIVER    dam:    CIRCULAR    BASTION    AND    ABUTMENT    AT    THE    NORTH    END. 


The  present  daily  consumption  of  water  by 
Greater  New  York  is  about  530,000,000  gallons, 
or  more  than  twice  the  quantity  with  which 
7,000,000  Londoners  have  to  content  them- 
selves. Of  the  aggregate  supply,  330,000,000 
gallons  are  derived  from  the  Croton  water- 
shed. Tliis  latter  amount  is  30,000,000  gallons 
a  day  more  than  can  prudently  be  looked 
for  in  years  of  extreme  drought,  and  only 
50,000,000  gallons  a  day  less  than  the  maxi- 
mum combined  capacit}^  of  the  "  Old  "  and 
"  New  "  Aqueducts.  As  the  increase  of  water 
drawn  through  these  conduits  for  several  years 
has  averaged  15,000,000  gallons  a  day  each 
year.  New  Yorkers,  ever  prone  to  panic  on 
the  subject  of  water  scarcity,  readily  scented 
danger  from  afar,  and  demanded,  cost  what 
it  might,  a  new  source  of  supply. 

This  movement,  started  long  before  the 
completion    of    the    New    Croton    Dam,    cul- 


minated a  few  years  ago  in  the  appointment 
of    a    commission  of    inquiry,  the  enactment 
of     necessary   laws,    and    the 
creation  of    a    new    authority.       A  further 
The  Board    of    Water  Supply      ^,f,3for 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  as 
the    latter    is    called,    has    jurisdiction    quite 
distinct  from  the  municipal  department  con- 
trolling   the    Croton    system.     It    decided    to 
seek    amid    the    Catskill    Mountains,    already 
world-famous  for  magnificent  scenery,  a  suit- 
able gathering-ground  for  the  required  waters  ; 
and  eventually   elaborated   plans   for   a   vast 
system  of  water  collection,  storage,  and  dis- 
tribution, which,  when  completed,  cannot  fail 
to    rank    high    among    the    most    remarkable 
achievements  of  modern  engineering. 

Preliminary  investigations  showed  that  the 
main  dam,  the  controlling  feature  of  the 
scheme,  must  be  placed  at  one  of  two  possible 


104 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


CROSS    RIVER    DAM,    AS    SEEN    FROM    ABOVE.       SPILLWAY    ON    EIGHT 


points.  So  exhaustive,  however,  was  the 
inquiry  into  all  the  circumstances  associated 
with  the  question,  that  it  was  not  until  early 
in  1907  that  the  Olive  Bridge  site  was  adopted. 
So  valuable  proved  the  mass  of  information 
collected  for  the  official  estimate  that  many 
would-be  contractors  made  their  bids  upon  it 
with  only  the  briefest  inspection  of  the  site. 

In  all,  five  bids  were  received.  The  contract 
was  awarded  on  August  31,  1907,  to  a  firm 
with  great  experience  in  similar  work,  includ- 
ing the  great  Wachusett  Reservoir  at  Clinton, 
Mass.,  and  the  Cross  River  Dam  at  Kotonah. 
Formal  notice,  however,  to 
commence  operations  was  not 
given  until  the  following  Feb- 
ruary. This  delay  was  occa- 
sioned by  an  inquiry  into  the 
circumstances  of  the  award, 
following  a  bitter  campaign 
against  the  Board  of  Water 
Supply  and  its  engineers  for 
not  accepting  the  lowest  ten- 
der, and  thereby,  as  was  alleged, 
causing  an  extravagant  waste 
of  public  money.  This  incident 
— watched  with  great  interest 
by  engineers  and  all  concerned 
with  municipal  work  on  a  large 
scale — would   have    made   im- 


possible the  commencement  of 
effective  operations  during  the 
season  of  1908  had  not  the 
contractors,  of  their  own  ini- 
tiative, carried  on  preliminary 
work  throughout  the  winter. 
As  it  was,  the  formal  notice 
found  them  all  but  ready  to 
instal  machinery  and  begin 
excavation. 

As  shown  on  the  accom- 
panying plan  below,  the  great 
Ashokan  Reservoir  will  be 
formed  by  masonry  and  earth 
dams  across  Esopus  and  Beaver 
Kill  Creeks,  and  by  dikes  closing  up  low 
parts  of  the  valley  on  the  east. 
It  will  have  a  length  of  about 
12  miles,  an  average  wddth 
of  about  1  mile,  and  a  shore  line  of  close 
upon  40  miles.  The  maximum  depth  of 
water  will  be  190  feet,  and  the  average  depth 
about  50  feet,  the  flow  line  being  at  an 
elevation  of  590  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
total  available  capacity  of  the  reservoir  will 
be  about  127,000,000,000  gallons,  ample  to 
cover  the  whole  of  Manhattan  Island  to  a 
depth  of   28  feet,   and  furnish   Greater  New 


The  Ashokan 
Reservoir. 


^gJ     BolMvUl* 

?!#^ 

-> 

%*7iJ 

^i^^^^^ 

nuRLEV  DIKES 

"\ 

^=<^^^^^^^"AirofcMfc       ■;  •  ••? 

Jp!>'y?Ki^fauiVE  BniDGE  DAM     '^ 

.  wEin 

■"^^^^^ 

; ?    .    r                        ^ 

\ 

MAP    OF    ASHOKAN    RESERVOIR. 


The  area  which  will  be  covered  by  water  is  dotted.  The  reservoir  will  con- 
tain 127,000,000,000  gallons,  and  furnish  500,000,000  gallons  a  day  to  Greater 
New  York. 


THE    WATER    SUPPLY    OF    NKW    YORK    CITY.  105 


York  with  a  daily  supply  of  500,000,000  gallons. 
The  engineers,  however,  mindful  of  the  dim 
and  distant  future  when  the  city  may  demand 
a  second  aqueduct,  have  decided  that  the  gate 
chamber,whero 
the  water  sup- 
ply from  tlie 
reservoir  will 
be  controlled, 
shall  have  a 
capacity  for 
handling  daily 
no  less  than 
1,200,000,000 
gallons  ! 

The  Asho- 
kan  Reservoir 
is  divided 
naturally  into 
two  basins,  one 
in  the  valley 
of  the  Esopus, 
and  the  other 
in  that  of  the 
Beaver  Kill  ; 
and  this  sepa- 
ration will  be 
completed  by 
the  construc- 
tion of  a  weir 
and  dike,  each 
1,100  feet  long. 
Over  the  weir, 
which  will  be 
built  of  mas- 
onry, will  pass, 
under  certain 
con  di  t  ions, 
flood  water 
from   the  west 

to  the  east  basin  en  route  to  the  waste  weir. 
This  latter  will  be  a  masonry  structure  1,000 
feet  long.  The  Beaver  Kill  dikes,  in  the  aggre- 
gate 23  miles  long,  will  rise  about  110  feet 
above  the  original  surface,  and  have  a  maxi- 


SITE    OF    OLIVE    BKIDGE    DAAl. 

The  two  huge  8  feet  diameter  steel  pipes  will  carry  off  the  water  of  the 
Esopus  Creek  during  the  construction  of  the  Dam  over  them. 

{Photo,  hy  courtesy  of  the  "Scientific  American.' 


mum  width  at  the  bottom  of  650  feet.  They 
will  bo  built  with  concrete  core- walls,  and,  with 
the  dividing  dike,  will  require  in  construction 
about    180,000   cubic   yards   of   masonry   and 

5,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  other 
material. 

Little  less  im- 
pressive than 
the  New  Cro- 
ton  Dam  will 
be  that  built 
across  Esopus 
Creek.  Its  cen- 
tral mass,  of 
concrete  mas- 
onry, will  be 
1,000  feet  long, 
200  feet  wide 
at  the  base, 
and  have  an 
extreme  height 
of  240  feet  from 
crest  to  bottom 
of  the  cut-off 
wall.  Each  end 
of  the  masonry 
will  be  flanked 
by  an  earthen 
wing  about 
1,800  feet  long, 
with  a  maxi- 
mum width  at 
the  base  of  800 
feet,  and  a  top 
width  of  34 
feet.  Core- 
walls  of  con- 
crete, founded 
on  rock,  will 
be  built  into  each  of  these  wings.  For  the 
central  portion  of  the  struc- 
ture there  will  be  required 
about  550,000  cubic  yards  of 
masonry,  and  for  the  wings  about  2,000,000 


The  Olive 
Bridge  Dam. 


106 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


k^af-i^ 


Drainage  it€l- 


SECTION    OP    OLIVE    BRIDGE    DAM. 

cubic  yards  of  embankment  materials.  On 
the  crest  of  the  dam,  which  will  be  610  feet 
above  sea-level  and  20  feet  higher  than  the 
flow  line  in  the  west  basin  of  the  reservoir, 
will  be  built  a  roadway,  26  feet  wide. 

The  amount  of  the  contract  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  Ashokan  Reservoir,  including 
nearly  four  miles  of  main  dams  and  accessory 
works,  is  about  £2,570,000.  The  date  set  for 
the  completion  of  the  contract  is  February  19, 
1915,  with  a  provision,  however,  that  the  work 
must  be  sufficiently  advanced  by  August  1912 
to  permit  of  the  storing  of  water  in  the  west, 
or  Esopus,  basin,  and  its  delivery  into  the 
aqueduct.  The  following  are  approximate 
estimates  of  the  excavation  and  material  re- 
quired : — 

Earth  excavation 2,055,000  cubic  yards. 

Rock 425,000 

Embankment  and  refilling 7,200,000 

Masonry 874,000 

Rubble  paving  and  riprap 105,000  „ 

Portland  cement 1,100,000  barrels. 

The  masonry  structures  for  the  most  part 

will  be   "  Cyclopean  " — that  is,  to  quote  the 

language  of  the  specifications,  "  concrete,  into 

which  stones  of  various  sizes, 

,.     ^  up  to  the  largest  that  can  be 

the  Dam.  _     ° 

convemently  handled,"  will  be 

embedded.     The  main  dam  will  be  faced  with 

concrete  blocks,  and  the  same  kind  of  material 

will  be   used  as   a  lining  for  the   inspection 


wells  and  at  the  expansion  joints — two  novel 
and  interesting  features  in  dam  construction. 
All  masonry  dams,  however  well  built,  are 
liable  to  seepage,  which,  entering  from  the 
up-stream  side,  passes  through  the  masonry, 
and  issues  from  the  down-stream  face,  pro- 
ducing a  discoloration  not  only  unsightly, 
but  liable  to  create  an  impression  that  the 
structure  is  not  tight.  To  prevent  this,  in 
the  case  of  the  Ashokan  Dam,  vertical  drain- 
age wells  will  be  built  into  the  masonry, 
terminating  at  top  and  bottom  in  inspection 
galleries.  The  position  of  these  will  be  ob- 
served in  the  cross-section  of  the  dam  printed 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  page. 


i^   ^.JK^MWi 


TYPICAL    SECTION    OF    DIKES,  ASHOKAN    RESERVOIR. 

The  expansion  and  contraction  joints  are 
designed  to  localize  the  effect  of  changes  of 
temperature.      When   cement   is   setting,   the 


VIEW    ALONG    LINE    OP    OLIVE    BRIDGE    DAM, 
SHOWING    TRENCH    FOR    FOUNDATIONS. 


THE    WATER    SUPPLY    OF    NEW    YORK    CITY. 


107 


temperature  of  a  large  mass  of  masonry,  such 
as  a  great  dam,  will  rise  as  high  as  120°,  and 
then  gradually  fall  to,  say,  50°,  these  changes 
being,  of  course,  accompanied  with  corre- 
sponding expansion  or  contraction  of  the 
structure.  If  the  latter  is  built  absolutely 
monolithic,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  ex- 
pansion will  produce  cracks  at  one  or  more 


a  channel  will  bo  constructed  for  the  same 
purpose  along  the  side  of  the  valley.  Ulti- 
mately the  water  will  be  allowed  to  flow  through 
a  tunnel  formed  in  the  masonry  of  the  dam, 
which  will  be  closed  when  the  dam  is  com- 
pleted. 

The    future    reservoir    basin    is    at    present 
crossed  by  a  railway,  for  which  a  new  location 


MAP    OF   WATERSHED  AREA  WHICH  WILL    ULTIMATELY 
SUPPLY   THE    CATSKILL    AQUEDUCT, 

The  course  of  the  Aqueduct  is  shown  by  a  heavy  black  line. 
This  Aqueduct  will  be  able  to  pass  500,000,000  gallons  a  day, 
and  if  the  need  arises  it  will  be  duplicated.  Its  projected 
length,  measured  from  the  Ashokan  Reservoir  to  the  storage 
reservoir  in  Staten  Island,  is  126  miles. 


Wru/Arr.. 


points,  and  these  will  not  necessarily  follow 
the  joints  in  the  masonry,  but  may  result  in 
the  great  stones  being  torn  asunder  during 
the  shrinkage.  By  the  provision,  however,  of 
vertical  joints  at  intervals  of  every  84  feet  of 
the  length  of  the  Ashokan  Dam,  the  masonry 
will  be  divided  into  sections,  and  the  total 
movement  due  to  changes  of  temperature  so 
distributed  among  a  large  number  of  joints 
as  to  become  inappreciable  at  each.  At  the 
same  time,  it  should  be  noted,  the  strength 
of  the  masonry  to  withstand  the  horizontal 
thrust  of  the  water  will  be  in  no  way  impaired. 
It  being  necessary  to  excavate  at  the  site 
of  the  dam  down  to  solid  rock,  provision  has 
had  to  be  made  for  passing  away  the  waters 
of  Esopus  Creek.  For  the  present,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration  on  page  105,  this  is  being  done 
by  means  of  two  8  feet  steel  pipes.  Later  on, 
however,  when  the  excavation  is  carried  lower. 


will  have  to  bo  provided.  Seven  small  villages 
also  exist  in  the  territory  to  be  submerged. 
In  all,  to  secure  absolute  control  over  the 
shores  of  the  reservoir,  23  square  miles  of  land 
will  have  to  be  acquired.  There  will  also 
require  to  be  built  about  40  miles  of  new 
highway.  For  the  accommodation  of  their 
employees,  the  contractors  have  built  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  works  about  one  hundred 
and  sixty  buildings,  including  a  school,  hospital, 
and  engineers',  doctors',  and  teachers'  dwell- 
ings. Very  elaborate  provisions  are  included 
in  the  contract  in  respect  of  sanitation,  in- 
spection, and  the  like. 

To  deliver  to  the  city  the  daily  supply  of 
250,000,000  gallons,  which  the 
first  development  of  the  Cats- 
kill  watershed  is  expected  to 
yield,  the  construction  of  a  great  aqueduct 
— far  surpassing  any  work  of  like  character — 


The  Catskill 
Aqueduct. 


108 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


has  already  been  commenced.  In  the  first 
instance,  in  order  to  appease  the  bugaboo  of 
water  famine  which  periodically  torments 
New  Yorkers,  this  is  to  be  connected  with  the 
New  Croton  system.  Later  on,  however,  the 
yields  of  the  two  groups  of  watersheds  will  be 
carried  southward  by,  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, quite  independent  means. 

After  passing  beneath  the  New  Croton 
Reservoir,  the  Catskill  Aqueduct  will  be  con- 
tinued to  Kensico,  where  another  great  reser- 
voir is  to  be  constructed,  capable  of  storing 
40,000,000,000  gallons,  of  which  about  half 
will  be  always  available.  This  basin  will  be 
formed  by  a  masonry  dam,  1,200  feet  long  and 
having  a  maximum  height  of  250  feet,  built 
across   the  valley  of    the    Bronx.     The    dam 


will  contain  about  1,000,000  cubic  yards  of 
masonry,  and  be  28  feet  wide  at  the  crest  and 
230  feet  wide  at  the  bottom. 

Four  miles  south,  at  Scarsdale,  a  large  filter- 
ing plant  is  projected,  and  thence  the  aqueduct 
will  be  continued  for  a  further  distance  of  six 
miles  to  Hill  View,  just  outside  the  city  bound- 
ary. Here  is  being  built  a  distribution  reser- 
voir, with  a  capacity  of  about  800,000,000 
gallons — an  ample  insurance,  it  would  appear, 
against  possible  difficulties  caused  by  any 
sudden  interruption  of  supply  by  failure  of 
the  ninety-two  miles  of  aqueduct  to  the  north. 
By  the  construction  below  the  East  River  of  a 
huge  tunnel  of  200,000,000  gallons  daily  capa- 
city, of  a  storage  and  distribution  reservoir 
in  Brooklyn,  and  of  a  great  pipe  line  carried 


CUT-AND-COVER   SECTION   OP   THE    CATSKILL    AQUEDUCT,  SHOWING    CONCRETING    OVER   STEEL    IIOULDS. 

Observe  the  reinforcing  steel  bars. 


THE    WATER    SUPPLY    OF    NEW    YORK    CITY. 


109 


through  that  city  and  below  the  Narrows  to 
Staten  Island,  the  water  wants  of  these  por- 
tions of  Greater  New  York  should  be  fully 
provided  for. 

Altogether,  the  territory  covered  by  the  new 
water      supply,      measured 
only  by  the  main  aqueduct 
and  main  conduit  line,  from 
the  head  of  the  Asho- 
kan   Reservoir   to    the 
terminal     reservoir 
on    Staten    Is- 
land,    extends 
125  miles. 

Attention 


FULL-SIZE    SECTION    OF    CUT- 
AND-COVER    CONCRETE    TYPE 


the    rock,    and   having   a   circular   waterway 
about  I4J  feet  in  diameter. 

Before  the  line  was  definitely  laid  down,  a 
careful  study  was  necessary,  first  on  the  maps 
of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  and 
then     in    the    field,    of    all 
routes    which    showed     any 
promise    of    being    feasible. 
In  this  connection,  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that 
the     extreme      hnes 
crossed  the  Hud- 
son River  over  20 
miles     apart, 
and     that 


CATSKILL   AQUEDUCT,  ERECTED 

IN   THE    TESTING    YARD    AT 

NEW    YORK    CITY. 


A  Colossal 
Enterprise. 


must  here  be  called  to  the  extraordinary 
dimensions  and  characteristics  of  the  new 
aqueduct  as  an  engineering  structure.  Wher- 
ever possible,  the  conduit  is 
being  built  of  concrete  and 
in  open  cut,  with  a  horseshoe 
section  of  17  feet  high  by  17  J  feet  wide — or 
3 1  feet  higher  and  4  feet  wider  than  the 
normal  section  of  the  New  Croton  Aqueduct 
tunnel.  The  tunnels  on  the  hydraulic  gradient 
will  also  have  a  height  of  17  feet,  but,  con- 
sequent on  the  greater  slope  allowed,  the 
width  is  reduced  to  14  feet  4  inches.  Else- 
where, valleys  and  rivers  have  to  be  crossed 
by  pressure  tunnels  below  grade,  cut  deep  in 


57,000  acres  were  covered  by  the  topo- 
graphical surveys.  The  ideal  route,  of  course, 
would  have  been  a  straight  one,  along  which 
the  aqueduct  could  be  constructed  in  open 
cut  on  the  hydraulic  gradient.  As  this  was  out 
of  the  question,  the  engineers  directed  their 
attention  to  securing,  without  undue  increase 
in  the  length  of  the  line,  the  smallest  percent- 
age of  tunnel  and  siphon.  How  far  they  suc- 
ceeded will  be  seen  in  the  following  table  : — 

Distance  between  Ashokan  Reservoir  and 

Croton  I^ko 54  miles. 

Aqueduct  at  grade  in  cut-and-cover 363o      „  60% 

Aqueduct  at  grade  in  tunncL 6-6(5      „  11% 

Aqueduct  below  grade  in  siphon 17-2o      „  29% 

Total 60-26  miles. 


110 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


On  account  of  the  enormous 

hydrostatic    pressure   to   which 

it  is  subjected,  a  siphon  tunnel 

must  be  deep  in 

Exploratory  f^.^ly    sound 

Work.         ^    ,       "^  ■ 

rock.  Conse- 
quently, wherever  this  type  of 
construction  was  found  neces- 
sary, very  extensive  explora- 
tions had  to  be  made  by  means 
of  wash  or  core  borings  before 
the  route  of  the  aqueduct  could 
be  definitely  determined.  The 
magnitude  of  this  preliminary 
work  will  be  evident  when  it  is 
remembered  that  along  the  line 
of  the  Ashokan  Aqueduct  the 
surface — or,  as  the  geologists 
call  it,  glacial  material — usually 
covers  the  rock  to  a  depth  of 
several  hundred  feet. 

And  here  let  it  be  noted,  for 
the  benefit  of   the  uninitiated, 
that    drilling    in    earth,    espe- 
cially   at     a    great     depth,    is 
usually     more     difficult     than 
boring   through  the  hardest  of 
rock.     If  the  rock  is  of  uniform 
quality,  a  progress  of  10  to  30 
feet  a  day  can  often  be  main- 
tained ;  whereas  the  presence  of 
a  gravel  bed  or  boulder  in  the  surface  material 
may  bring  on  troubles   sufficient  to  cause  a 
delay  of  weeks  in  boring  a  few  feet.     Where 
the  rocks  are  very  hard,  the   diamonds  and 
other  cutting  agents  wear  away  rapidly  ;  but, 
speaking  generally,  this    trouble   is   of   small 
account   compared   with   that  caused  by  the 
occurrence   of   a   soft    spot,   resulting    in   the 
caving  in  of  the  walls  of  the  hole. 

Up  to  the  present  the  total  length  of  wash 
and  core  borings  in  connection  with  the  Asho- 
kan Aqueduct  exceeds  25  miles  !  The  borings 
have  ranged  in  depth  from  a  few  feet  to 
nearly  700  feet  in    the   Rondout  Valley  and 


STEEL    MOULD    FOR    CUT- AND-COVER    WORK,    CATSKILL   AQUEDUCT. 

{Photo,  by  courtesy  of  the  *' Scientific  American") 

over  1,000  feet  in  the  gorge  of  the  Hudson 
River,  where,  for  reasons  which  will  be  ex- 
plained later,  the  exploration  difficulties  have 
been  exceptionally  great.  West  of  the  river, 
in  addition  to  three  streams,  three  wide  valleys 
will  require  siphons,  each  from  3|  to  4|  miles 
long.  On  the  other  side,  also,  several  tribu- 
taries of  the  Hudson  must  be  crossed  by 
similar  means.  The  following  are  all  the 
siphons  in  this  section  of  the  aqueduct — from 
Ashokan  Reservoir  to  Croton  Lake — arranged 
in  geographical  order  from  north  to  south, 
with  the  type  of  construction  and  approximate 
length  of  each  : — 


THE    WATER    SUPPLY  OF    NEW    YORK    CITY.  Ill 

Esopus,  steel  pipe l,850f<.t  wash    and    core   borings    have   in   turn    been 

Tangore,  steel  pipe 700,,  ijja^  4.^1,    £4.   u  u 

Rondout,  rock  tunnel 23,610   „  abandoned.     A  deep  test  shaft  has  now  been 

Wallkill,  rock  tunnel 23,400  „  sunk  on  each  shore  of  the  river,   and  from 

Washington  Square,  steel  pipe 3,550    ,,  .,  i     rx     i       •         -    i     i   mi   i       •  i     - 

Moodna,  rock  tunnel 19,800  „  ^^ese  shafts  horizontal  drill  borings  are  being 

Hudson  River,  rock  tunnel 4,450  „  made  under  the  river  bed.     Up  to  January 

Foundry  Brook,  steel  pipe 3,800    ,,  i      ^     j-i,        i  j.    i.      •„  i        ii.        •  i     j 

Indian  Brook,  steel  pipe  600    „  ^^«*'    ^^«   ^^^P^^*   ^«^^"g   ""^*^^   ^^^   ^^^^^   ^'^^ 

Sprout  Brook,  steel  pipe 2,270   „  been  sunk  626  feet  below  tide-level,  or  nearly 

Peckskill  Creek,  steel  pipe ZMO  „  ^  q^q  f^^  b^l^^^  ^^le  aqueduct  on  the  western 

^°*'*' 91,070  feet.  slope  of  the  river,  but  without  encountering 

The  crossing  of  the  Hudson  River  was  re-  rock.     It    is    consequently    evident    that    the 

garded  from  the  very  first  as  one  of  the  most  huge  inverted  siphon  by  which  it  is  proposed 

difficult  features  of  the  Catskill  development  to  convey  the  Catskill  water  across  the  Hudson 

scheme,    and    that    this    will  must   be  carried  to    a    much    greater    depth 

The  Hudson     actually  prove  to  be  the  case  than  was  originally  anticipated,  and  that  its 

-,        .  is  now  certain.     It  was  origin-  construction    will    involve    much    unexpected 

ally  proposed  to  cross  the  river  difficulty  and  cost, 
at  New  Hamburg  ;  but  the  preliminary  bor-  As  was  truly  remarked  by  one  of  the  orators 

ings  here,  as  at  other  suggested  sites,  failed  on  the   occasion  of  the   inauguration   of  the 

to  expose  rock  sufficiently  free  from  fissures  work,  "  This  mighty  aqueduct  will  take  from 

and  other  imperfections  to  justify  confidence  no  man  anything  that  is  needful  to  him.     It 

that  it  would  be  able  to  withstand  the  enor-  will  bring  the  purest   and  most  healthful  of 

mous  pressure  of  water  at  the  depth  below  all  drinks  to  myriads  of  citizens  of  New  York 

the  river  bed  to  which  the  tunnel  would  have  both  in  the  present  and  the  future.     It  will 

to  be  sunk.     The  attention  of  the  engineers  carry  to  their  homes  the  means  of  cleanliness 

was    consequently    directed    to    the    country  and  happiness.     It  will  be  a  safeguard  to  the 

between    Cornwall    and    West    Point,    where  household  gods  of  the  poor  and  to  the  mer- 

geologists  assured  them  a  thoroughly  sound  chandise  of  the  captains  of  industry." 
and    reliable    granite    would    be    found.     For  Reference  to  the  map  printed  on  page  107 

various  reasons,  a  line  crossing  the  river  from  will  show  that  the  policy  of  "  looking  forward  " 

Storm  King  Mountain  on  the  west  to  Break-  looms  large  among  the  responsible  authorities, 

neck    Mountain    on    the    east    was    selected.  and  that — so    far   at  least  as 

Here  the  hills  rise  precipitously  to  more  than  plans  are    concerned — little  is        *       ****  i 

1,200  feet  above  the  water,  and  the  river  is  to   be   left    to    chance  in  the 

2,800  feet  wide  and  90  feet  deep.  future.     If  more  water  should  be  demanded 

At  this  picturesque  spot  costly  and  labori-  when  the  present  enterprise  is  completed — at 

ous  operations — necessarily  suspended  during  an  estimated  cost,  for  the  first  installation  of 

the  severe  winter  months — have  been  in  pro-  250,000,000  gallons  daily,  of  £23,093,000,  and 

gress    since    September    1905,  for    double    that    quantity    of    £33,402,000 — 

berious      1^^^  gQ  £g^j.  ^j^^  invariably  dis-  inroads  will  be  made  on  the  fields  of  adjacent 

appointing  and  perplexing  re-  watersheds.      The     first     tlireatened     is    the 

suits.     The  putting  down  of  vertical  holes  in  Rondout,    which    is    said    to    be    capable    of 

the  bed  of  the  river  having  proved  unavailing,  yielding   130,000,000    gallons  daily.      In  this 

and  a  difficult  undertaking  on  account  of  the  it  is  proposed  to  construct  two  reservoirs — 

interference    by    navigation   and    the    violent  Lackawack  and  Napanocli — with  capacities  of 

winds  which  frequently  blow  through  the  gap,  13,270,000,000   and    4,760,000,000  gallons  re- 


112 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


spectively,  from  which  the  waters  would  be 
led  by  an  aqueduct  into  the  main  Catskill 
Aqueduct  about  two  miles  below  the  Ashokan 
Reservoir.  Later,  the  Schoharie  watershed 
will  be  brought  into  service  by  the  construction 
of  the  Prattsville  Reservoir,  with  a  capacity  of 
9,400,000,000  gallons,  brought  into  Esopus 
Creek  by  means  of  a  10  miles  tunnel  through 
the  mountains.  Finally,  the  Catskill  waters 
will  be  impounded  in  three  reservoirs — at 
Franklinton,  Preston  Hollow,  and  Oak  Hill — 
with  an  aggregate  capacity  of  nearly 
25,000,000,000  gallons,  and  brought  into  the 
Ashokan  Reservoir  by  an  aqueduct  running 


south  between  the  mountains  and  Hudson 
River.  These  extensions  of  an  already 
colossal  undertaking  would  put  at  the  com- 
mand of  Greater  New  York  an  addi- 
tional daily  supply  of  200,000,000  gallons  of 
water. 

For  much  valuable  information,  helpful  to 
the  production  of  this  article,  the  author 
desires  to  express  cordial  acknowledgments  to 
Mr.  Walter  H.  Sears,  chief  engineer  of  the  Gty 
of  New  York  Aqueduct  Commission ;  and  to 
Mr.  J.  Waldo  Smith,  chief  engineer,  and  Mr. 
Alfred  D.  Flinn,  department  engineer,  of  the 
Board  of  Water  Supply. 


GRADE  TUNNEL 


PRESSURE  TUNNEL 


CATSKILL    AQUEDUCT  :     TYPICAL    SECTIONS. 


BUILDING   TRESTLES    ACROSS    THE    BREACH. 


THE    COLORADO    RIVER    CLOSURE. 


The  Story  of  a  Three  Years'  Struggle  to  close  a  Breach  in  the  Banks  of  a 

Great  River. 


A  MONG  the  many  tasks  that  fall  to  the 
A-\  lot  of  the  engineer  is  that  of  altering 
"^  ^  the  flow  of  a  river.  Perhaps  a  stream 
bursts  its  banks  and  changes  its  course  :  it 
must  be  forced  back  into  its  original  bed. 
Or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  divert  a  river  from  its  natural  path  for 
irrigation  or  other  purposes. 

Such  undertakings  are  usually  effected  with- 
out difficulty,  by  throwing  dams  across  a 
breach  in  a  broken  bank,  or  by  digging  a  new 
channel,  as  circumstances  may  need.  But  in 
the  case  of  the  Colorado  River  outbreak  and 
closure  the  problem  was  such  as  to  make  its 
solution  a  matter  of  world-wide  interest. 

The  Colorado  is  one  of  the  largest  rivers  in 
the  United  States.  It  rises  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  of  Utah,  and  after  flowing  through 
the  Grand  Canyon  and  tra- 
versing a  stretch  of  flat  coun- 
try, empties  itself  into  the 
Gulf  of  California.  The  flat  stretch  referred 
to  commences  at  Yuma.  Some  hundreds  of 
miles  west  of  this  town  is  a  dried-up  ocean 
bed  known  as  the  Salton  Sink.  It  lies  about 
300   feet   below   sea-level,  and   was,  until  re- 

a,408) 


The  Colorado 
River. 


cently,  useless  to  man,  except  for  the  great 
salt  deposits  found  in  its  deepest  depressions. 
Presently  some  one  discovered  that  the  soil 
of  the  basin — detritus  deposited  by  the  river 
during  the  course  of  ages— had  a  natural 
marvellous  fertility  when  brought  into  contact 
with  water.  In  1896  a  scheme  was  inaugu- 
rated, under  the  name  of  the  Calif  ornia  Develop- 
ment Company,  to  divert  part  of  the  waters 
of  the  Colorado  into  the  Imperial  Valley,  an 
upper  bench  of  the  Sink.  Nature  had  pre- 
pared the  way  by  cutting  a  channel,  filled  only 
at  exceptionally  high  floods,  many  miles 
through  the  valley,  from  a  point  about  twelve 
miles  below  Yuma.  It  was  necessary  only  to 
turn  water  into  this  canal  to  lead  it  practically 
fifty  miles  in  the  requisite  direction. 

In  1900  the  Development  Company  tapped 
the  river  several  miles  above  the  point  at 
which  this  dry  channel  left  the  Colorado,  put 
in  a  headgate  or  sluice  some 


An  Irrigation 
Canal  made. 


80  feet  long,  and  dug  an  ar- 
tificial canal  parallel  to  the 
river  from  this  headgate  to  the  channel.  (See 
Fig.  1.)  This  last  was  made  the  feeder  of 
many    smaller    irrigating    canals    and    ditches 

8  VOL.  III. 


THE    COLORADO    RIVER    CLOSURE. 


115 


intersecting  the  Imperial  Valley  in  all  direc- 
tions. The  valley  proved  to  be  marvellously 
fertile,  its  soil  producing  a  crop  of  alfalfa 
grass  in  six  weeks.  Settlers  were  attracted, 
and  soon  12,000  persons  were  cultivating 
2,000  farms  in  a  region  hitherto  practically 
uninhabited  by  man. 

The  waters  were  turned  into  the  valley  in 


Fig.  1. — SKETCH  MAP  TO  SHOW  THE  LOCATIONS  OF 
THE  FIRST  FIVE  ATTEMPTS  MADE  TO  CLOSE  THE 
BREACH   IN   THE    RIVER   BANK. 

The  course  of  the  water  during  these  operatlonf  is  shown 
by  the  shading.  The  Figs,  indicate: — 1.  First  attempt, 
January  1905.  2.  Second  attempt,  May  1905  to  June  1905. 
3.  Third  attempt,  July  and  August  1905.  4.  Fourth  attempt, 
October  13  to  November  29,  1905.  5.  Fifth  attempt,  January 
8  to  October  11,  1906.  The  small  canal,  x,  cut  to  increase  the 
volume  of  irrigation  water,  was  the  cause  of  all  the  trouble. 

June  1901.  Unfortunately,  in  their  haste  to 
complete  their  contract  up  to  time,  the  engi- 
neers placed  the  floor  of  the  headgate  five 
feet  above  the  level  originally  planned,  and 
too  high  to  pass  water  at  the  river's  lowest 
state.     As  a  result  the  connecting  canal  silted 


A  Serious 
Mishap 


up,  and  though  dredgers  were  kept  at  work,  the 
water  delivered  did  not  meet  the  needs  of  the 
many  settlers.  To  remedy 
matters,  a  ditch  (marked  x 
in  Fig.  1)  was  cut — late  in 
1904 — from  the  channel  to  the  Colorado  direct, 
about  four  miles  below  the  original  headgate. 
This  ditch,  50  feet  wide,  had  a  fall  of  IJ  feet 
in  its  3,300  feet  ;  but  despite  its  ample  di- 
mensions it  soon  became  obstructed.  It  was 
cleared,  only  to  close  again.  A  third  time 
the  engineers  opened  it,  and  then  occurred 
a  flood  which  widened  and  deepened  the  ditch 
until  the  Colorado  chose  an  easier  way  down 
into  the  Sink,  leaving  its  bed  dry  below  the 
breach  and  its  old  estuary  waterless. 

This  unexpected  mishap  portended  terrific 
consequences.  Unless  checked,  the  river  would 
fill  up  the  depression  to  sea-level,  and  create 
the  largest  body  of  water  in  the  United  States. 
To  stave  off  ruin  from  the  settlers,  it  was  im- 
perative to  turn  the  river  back  into  its  old 
bed — a  task  far  more  difficult  than  was  at 
first  anticipated,  as  the  story  will  show. 

To  understand  the  operations  of  the  next 
two  years,  the  reader  should  refer  to  the  two 

sketch  maps,  Figs.  1 
and  2,  which  show 
by  numerals  the  lo- 
calities of  the  seven 
attempts  made  to 
close  the  breach. 

The  first  attempt, 
begun  in  January 
1905,  consisted  of 
driving  down  piles 
3  feet  apart  across 
the  entrance  to  the 
crevasse  cut  by  the 
stream,  and  filling 
in  the  spaces  with  brushwood  and  bags  of  sand. 

The  supply  of  sacks  failed  be-     ^.     ^.     ^ 

,1    ,     ,1  The  First- 

fore  the  work  had  been  com- 
pleted, and  during  the  wait  for  more  the  half- 
finished  dam  gave  way.     Tliis  made  the  engi- 


Fig.  2. — MAP  SHOWING  THE 
POSITION  OF  OPERATIONS 
DURING  THE  SIXTH  AND 
SEVENTH  ATTEMPTS  TO 
CLOSE   THE    CREVASSE. 


116 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


neers  realize  that  more  aggressive  measures 
were  needed  for  the  conquest  of  the  river, 
though  further  operations  were 
postponed  until  the  following 
May.  Two  rows  of  piles,  15 
feet  apart,  were  then  carried 
out  from  the  right  bank  of  the 
channel  ;   but  the  obstruction  served  only  to 


and  Second 

Attempts  to 

close  the 

Breach. 


Company,  owing  to  exhaustion  of  funds,  could 
no  longer  conduct.  Colonel  Randolph,  Vice- 
President  of  the  railway,  resident  at  Tucson, 
an  eminent  engineer  with  a  wide  experience 
of  river  work,  was  put  in  command,  with 
Mr.  C.  E.  Rockwood,  the  engineer  who  had 
conceived  the  irrigation  scheme,  as  chief 
executive. 


STEAMBOAT    AND    CREW   PREPARING   TO   DAM   THE    INTAKE  :     FIRST   ATTEMPT. 


make  the  river  erode  the  other  bank,  so  that 
the  gap  was  not  lessened.  After  a  month's 
work  the  attempt  had  to  be  abandoned. 

By  this  time  the  Salton  Sink  had  become 
a  great  lake,  forty  miles  long.  Destruction 
threatened  the  track  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railway,  which  skirted  the  northern  edge  of 
the  lake  and  the  railway  management,  urged 
by  the  law  of  self-preservation,  had  to  take 
hold  of  the  business  which  the  Development 


Their  predecessors  had  not  realized  fully  the 
strength  of  the  Colorado.  Fed  by  melting 
snow,  the  river  naturally  floods  in  the  season 
— May  to  September — when  the  sun  has 
greatest  power.  Like  other  rivers  traversing 
arid  regions  with  no  vegetation  to  regulate 
the  off -flow  of  the  water,  the  Colorado  has 
a  maximum  flow  many  times — about  fifty — 
greater  than  the  minimum.  During  a  flood 
period  the  quantity  of  water  passing  a  given 


THE    COLORADO    RIVER    CLOSURE. 


117 


The  Third 
Attempt — 


point  is  half  that  of  tho  Niagara  River  at  the 
famous  falls.v  Furthermore,  the  Gila  River, 
which  ente'rs  the  Colorado  just  above  Yuma, 
is  subject  to  heavy  spates  caused  by  cloud- 
bursts, and  in  a  few  hours  swells  from  a  trickle 
into  a  raging  torrent  discharging  almost  as 
much  water  as  the  main  stream  itself.  An- 
other feature  of  importance  is  the  character 
of  the  Colorado's  bed — deep  silt  unfathom- 
able by  borings  and  piles,  and  so  fine  that 
flowing  water  disintegrates  it  with  the  greatest 
ease. 

Having  acquainted  themselves  with  the 
peculiarities  of  the  river,  the  engineers  made 
a  third  attempt  to  stop  the  breach.  They 
drove  piles  obliquely  across 
the  stream  to  the  upper  end 
of  an  island — fitly  called  Dis- 
aster Island,  as  it  was  subsequently  washed 
away — hoping  thus  to  turn  the  waters  into 
the  channel  to  the  left  of  the  island,  and  cause 
the  formation  of  a  sandbank  at  the  entrance 
of  the  crevasse.  But  a  sudden  rise  of  the 
river  undermined  and  removed  the  piles,  and 
August  1905 
saw  this  at- 
tempt aban- 
doned. 

The  engi- 
neers did  not 
despair,  how- 
ever. A  brush 
and  pile  dam 
(3  in  Fig.  1) 
was  stretched 
across  the 
Mexican  or 
right  channel 
to  the  upper 
end  of  the 
now  partly  de- 
stroyed island. 
It  had  been 
almost  com- 
pleted     when 


and  the 
Fourth. 


The  Concrete 
Headfi^ate. 


WATER  EATING   ITS   WAY   THROUGH   THE   RIVER   BANKS. 


an  ex(i])tiuiiiilly  liigh  flood  of  the  Gila  swept 
down   on    and    destroyed    the 
works.     So  ended  effort  num- 
ber four. 

Two  days  before  the  disaster  a  contract  had 
been  signed  for  the  construction  of  a  steel 
reinforced  concrete  headgate  near  the  intake 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  canal, 
about  1,500  feet  from  the 
river  bank.  The  gate  was  de- 
signed to  pass  10,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
second,  and  enable  all  the  river  to  be  diverted 
through  it  at  low  water  into  the  old  canal 
and  allow  the  breach  opposite  the  island  to  be 
dammed.  The  canal  itself  also  required  widen- 
ing ;  and  as  this  work  could  not  be  effected 
quickly,  it  was  decided  to  construct  simul- 
taneously a  wooden  headgate  (5a  in  Fig.  1) 
beside  the  breach,  and  afterwards  dam  the 
breach  opposite  this  headgate.  Owing  to  un- 
avoidable delay  the  wooden  gate  was  not 
completed  soon  enough  to  permit  opening  the 
by -pass  leading  to  it,  and  building  the  dam, 
before  the  occurrence  of  the  ensuing  summer 

floods  (1906), 
which  were 
particularly 
severe,  and 
extended  the 
width  of  the 
crevasse  from 
600  to  about 
2,600  feet,  de- 
positing a 
sandbank 
1,500  feet  long 
in  front  of  the 
headgate  (see 
Fig.  2).  This 
c  o  mplicated 
matters  seri- 
ously. The  en- 
gineers deter- 
mined to  erect 
a    dam    3,000 


THE    COLORADO    RIVER    CLOSURE. 


119 


strenuous 
Work. 


THE   WATERS    WASHING   AWAY   A   HOUSE. 

The  side  of  the  house  is  seen  in  the  act  of  falling. 

feet  long  across  the  breach,  and  construct  5 
miles  of  levees  (artificial  banks)  5  miles  down- 
stream, and  3 1  miles  up-stream  from  the 
wooden  to  the  concrete  headgate  ;  also  to 
deepen  the  old  canal,  and  make  a  new  cut  (Z) 
from  the  river  to  the  upper  headgate.  About 
300,000  cubic  yards  of  material  were  to  go 
into  the  dam  and  400,000  yards  into  the 
levees.  For  so  colossal  a  task  great  prepara- 
tions    were     necessary.       The 


The  Fifth 
Attempt. 


intense  heat  of  the  climate 
made  it  difficult  to  obtain 
sufficient  labour  until  Indians  had  been  re- 
cruited from  far  and  near  and  accommodated 
in  a  comfortable  camp  at  the  dam  site.  To 
handle  materials  and  supplies  a  spur  track 
was  built  from  the  Southern  Pacific  main  line 
at  a  point  10  miles  west  of  Yuma.  This  spur 
was  11  miles  long,  including  sidings.  Quarries 
were  opened,  clay  and  gravel  pits  developed, 
and  preparations  made  for  weaving  huge  mat- 
tresses to  aid  in  the  closure.  In  the  course  of 
a  few  months  1,100  piles,  2,000  bundles  of  wil- 
lows, 40  miles  of  steel  cable,  and  70,000  tons 
of  rock  had  been  collected  for  incorporation 
into  the  dam.  Meanwhile  the  engineers  shifted 
40  miles  of  the  Southern  Pacific  track  to 
escape  the  waters  of  the  encroaching  Salton 
Sink.  Four  times  were  the  rails  moved  for 
this  reason  during  the  closure  operations. 


Another 
Disaster. 


The  scene  now  became  one 
of  great  activity.  Hundreds  of 
teams,  two  dredgers,  and  several 
steam  -  shovels 
got  to  work.  Six 
hundred  feet  of 
the  opening  were  mattressed  ; 
})rush  fascines,  eighteen  inches 
in  diameter,  held  together  by 
strong  foundation  cables,  were 
dumped  against  piles  driven  at 
intervals.  The  current  found 
a  way  under  the  mattress  and 
below  the  masses  of  piles  and 
brushwood  which  reinforced  the 
ends  of  the  mattress. 

A  trestle  for  railway  tracks  was  accordingly 
constructed  along  the  centre  line  of  the  pro- 
posed dam,  and  car  loads  of  rock  and  gravel 
were  dumped  until  the  water 
was  penned  and  diverted 
through  the  wooden  headgate. 
However,  the  Colorado  made  another  effort 
for  freedom,  rose,  and  brought  down  large 
quantities  of  driftwood  which  blocked  the 
gate.  This  caused  the  undermining  of  the 
gate,  and  despite  attempts  to  w-eight  it  down 
with  rocks,  the  water  suddenly  tore  away 
some  120  feet  of  the  structure  and  swept  it 
down-stream.  The  scouring  created  a  channel 
— fitly  called  the  New  River — through  the 
Imperial  Valley.  Fields  of  grain  and  vege- 
tables, orchards  and  fruit  gardens,  entire 
farms,  also  hundreds  of  houses,  were  swept 
away  by  the  invading  torrent.  This  disaster 
closed  chapter  five. 

The  engineers  took  counsel  together,  and 
quickly  evolved  a  fresh  plan  of  campaign. 
This  was  to  throw  three  parallel  lines  of  trestles, 
each  to  carry  a  railway  track, 
across  the  breach,  and  dump 
the  largest  stones  obtainable 
across  the  by -pass  breach,  and  turn  the  water 
through  an  opening  made  in  the  dam.  The 
Southern  Pacific  Railway  authorities  made  a 


The  Sixth 
Attempt. 


a   <! 
o   w 

CO    ta 


THE    COLORADO    RTVER    CLOSimE. 


121 


DUMPING   EARTH   AND   STONES   TO   FORM   THE   DAM. 

tremendous  effort  to  carry  out  the  scheme, 
utilizing  every  quarry  within  a  radius  of  400 
miles,  and  dumping  daily  200  car  loads  of  the 
rock  thus  obtained.  The  .  work  began  on 
November  24,  1906.  Twenty  days  later  the 
breach  was  closed,  and  the  water  had  been 
forced  into  the  old  bed  of  the  Colorado — all, 
that  is  to  say,  which  was  not  drawn  off  through 
the  concrete  headgate  to  supply  the  irrigation 
needs  of  the  valley. 

Just  when  the  fighters  were  beginning  to 
congratulate  themselves  on  having  at  last 
subdued  the  river,  it  breached  the  levee 
below  the  dam,  and  soon  had  eaten  out  an 
opening  two- thirds  of  a  mile  wide. 

The  seventh  and  last  struggle  began  on 
January  27,  1907.  Three  lines  of  trestles, 
resting  on  piles  65  to  90  feet  long,  were  reared 
across  the  break,  at  the  cost 
of  several  failures  and  great 
labour.  It  was  actually  neces- 
sary to  weight  the  piles  with  water  tanks 
placed  on  top  to  prevent  them  being  loosened 
by  the  water.  In  all,  some  100,000  cubic 
yards  of  rock  and  75,000  yards  of  clay  and 
gravel  were  deposited  from  the  trestles.     The 


The  Seventh 
Attempt. 


Success 
at  Last. 


dams  gradually  pDinu-d  up  the  river  until, 
when  it  had  attained  a  depth  of  12  feet,  it 
resought  its  old  channel.  The  fight  was 
definitely  won  by  the  end  of 
February.  The  month's  work 
had  been  most  severe,  calling 
for  the  services  of  nearly  1,300  labourers — 
including  375  Indians — 600  horses,  7  loco- 
motives, a  steamboat,  and  a  fleet  of  barges, 
dredgers,  and  pile  drivers. 

The  contest  between  man  and  river  had 
lasted  three  years,  and  its  termination  reflects 
the  highest  credit  on  the  organization  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  which  alone  could 
have  carried  the  business  through  in  time 
to  save  the  Imperial  Valley,  and  also  on 
the  engineers  in  charge  of  operations — Colonel 
E.  Randolph  and  Messrs.  C.  E.  Rockwood, 
H.  T.  Cory,  T.  J.  Hind,  C.  K.  Clarke,  and 
E.  Carriilo. 

As  the  dams  and  levees  have  withstood 
some  severe  floods,  it  seems  unlikely  that  the 
river  will  "  take  charge  "  again.  Even  if  such 
a  catastrophe  should  happen,  the  engineers, 
taught  by  experience,  should  have  less  diffi- 
culty than  before  in  forcing  the  waters  back 
into  their  natural  channel. 


m^^ 

^"1 

1 

1 

mr^^ 

4 

"^^ 

1 

^ 

.:     1. 

jj 

PART   OF   THE   COLORADO    KIVKK   LEVEES,  u.:  >.u.\iAi.\ 
ING    BANKS,    WHICH    HAD    A    TOTAL    LENGTH   OF  8^ 
MILES,     AND     CONSUMED     HALF     A     MILLION     CUBIC 
YARDS    OF    MATERIAL.. 


SOME    EXTRAORDINARY 

SHIPBUILDING   FEATS. 


Fig.    1. — S.S.    "  WITTEKIND  "    IN    DRY   DOCK   AT   THE    YARDS     OF    MESSRS.     SWAN,     HUNTER,     AND     VVIGHAM 
RICHARDSON,    LIMITED,    WALLSEND,    FOR    LENGTHENING   60   FEET.      NEW   FLOORS    IN   POSITION. 

BY    ALBERT    G.    HOOD, 

Editor  of  "  The  Shipbuilder." 


AN  account  of  ships  and  shipbuilding 
/—\  would  be  incomplete  without  some 
^  -^  reference  to  what  may  be  termed 
extraordinary  shipbuilding  feats.  Occasion- 
ally the  requirements  which  have  to  be  ful- 
filled are  so  unusual  that  the  naval  architect 
finds  it  necessary  to  evolve  an  entirely  new 
type  of  vessel,  and  of  the  ingenuity  displayed 
under  these  circumstances  a  very  interesting 
chapter  might  be  written. 

To  meet,  for  example,  the  needs  of  navi- 
gators in  waters  which  are  frozen  over  in 
winter,  many  vessels  have  been  specially  de- 
signed for  forcing  their  way  through  ice. 


The 
Ice -Breaker 
"  Ermack." 


The  most  remarkable  ice-breaker  so  far 
constructed  is  the  Ermack,  built  by  Messrs. 
Armstrong,  Whitworth,  and  Company,  to  the 
designs  of  the  late  Admiral 
Makaroff,  the  brave  Russian 
commander  who  perished  at 
Port  Arthur  during  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War.  As  originally  constructed, 
she  was  305  feet  long,  of  71  feet  beam,  and  42 
feet  6  inches  deep  to  the  upper  deck,  with 
a  displacement  of  8,000  tons.  Her  engines 
indicate  8,000  horse-power,  and  give  the  vessel 
a  speed  in  open  water  of  15  knots.  Built 
of  steel,  she  has  very  great  strength,  her  bow 
particularly    being    strong    enough    to   with- 


SOME    EXTRAORDINARY    SHIPBUILDING    FEATS.       123 


stand  impact  with  heavy  ico.  Her  trans- 
verse form  is  such  that  when  wedged  between 
masses  of  ice  she  will  tend  rather  to  rise  than 
be  depressed.  Her  bow  slopes  upwards  from 
below,  so  as  to  enable  her  to  run  up  on  the  ice 
and  thus  use  her  weight  to  break  it  ;  while 
her  stern  is  so  shaped  as  to  afford  the  maximum 
protection  for  the  screw  propellers  against  ice. 
When  she  left  her  builders'  hands  the 
Ermack,  in  addition  to  three  screws  aft,  had 
one  fitted  at  the  fore  end,  which  was  in- 
tended to  disturb  the  water  below  the  ice, 
and  so  assist  the  weight  of  the  ship  in  break- 
ing through.  While  working  in  thick  field 
ice,  however,  the  shaft  of  the  forward  screw 
became  bent,  and  it  was  found  necessary  to 
remove  the  screw.  Later,  the  vessel  returned 
to  the  Tyne,  and  a  new  fore-body  was  built, 
omitting  the  forward  screw.  The  ship  was 
then  docked,  the  old  bow  cut  away,  and  the 
enlarged  fore-part  joined  on,  the  length  of  the 
ship  being  increased  to  320  feet.  Fig.  2  is 
from  a  photograph  taken  while  the  ice- 
breaker was  in  dry  dock  for  this  alteration, 


and  shows  the  new  bow  in  position.  The 
Ermack  proved  herself  capable  of  crushing 
with  comparative  ease  the  ice  met  in  the 
Baltic  in  the  middle  of  winter,  and  on  an 
experimental  voyage  to  the  Polar  Sea  north 
of  Spitzbergen  she  made  her  way  through 
vast  ice-fields,  and  successfully  encountered 
floes  of  the  greatest  thickness. 

The  increased  use  of  submarines  as  adjuncts 
to  the  world's  fighting  fleets  has  confronted 
the  naval  architect  with  a  good  many  prob- 
lems    apart     from     those    in- 


Transporting 
Submarines. 


volved  in  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  the  craft  them- 
selves. It  is  well  known  that  when  a  flotilla 
of  submarines  are  engaged  in  manoeuvring 
some  distance  from  shore,  they  are  usually 
accompanied  by  a  "  mother  "  ship  ;  but  the 
general  public  are  not  so  familiar  with  the 
special  means  employed  for  transporting  sub- 
marines when  it  becomes  necessary  to  convey 
them  from  one  part  of  the  world  to  another. 
Recently  Messrs.  Vickers    Sons    and   Maxim, 


Fig.   2. — ICE-BREAKER   "  ERMACK  "    IN   DRY    DOCK,    WITH   NEW   BOW   IN    POSITION. 


124 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


who  have  made  a  speciality  of  the  building  of 
submarines,  had  occasion  to  send  two  of  these 
vessels  to  Japan,  and  for  this  purpose  they 
employed  a  specially  constructed  ship,  named 
the  Transporter.  The  submarines  were  each 
about  135  feet  long  and  250  tons  weight. 
The  Transporter  was  taken  to  a  graving  dock 
in   the   Mersey  ;     the   port   rail,    part   of   her 


and    also  for  lifting  torpedo  boats   and  sub- 
marines out  of   the  water.      This  dock-ship, 
built  to  the  designs  of  Naval 
Constructor  Ph.  von  Klitzing,    ^  Dock- Ship 

was    an     interesting    item    in    „   . 

^  Submarines. 

the      shipbuilding     output     of 

the    Howaldtswerke    of    Kiel    in    1908.      The 

vessel,  as  will  be  seen  on  reference  to  Fig.  3, 


mB^. 


<n»«BB!ffWlS«."'  ' 


»mj»MU»«<!ii>n»iMlin«Jiirtj)gi;^||jyP|l 


Fig.    3. — THE    "  VULKAN,"    A   GERMAN   DOCK-SHIP   FOR   TORPEDO    BOATS   AND   SUBMARINES. 
The  vessel  has  practically  two  hulls,  joined  by  an  arch-like  superstructure. 


deck,  and  all  the  cross  beams  were  removed, 
and  the  vessel  was  submerged.  The  first 
submarine  was  then  floated  into  the  dock 
and  over  the  Transporter's  hold,  and  the 
water  in  the  dock  pumped  out.  As  it  dropped, 
the  submarine  was  carefully  bedded  on  chocks, 
previously  fitted,  by  .  divers  and  secured. 
The  operation  was  afterwards  successfully 
repeated  with  the  second  submarine,  when 
the  deck,  etc.,  of  the  transport  ship  was 
replaced,  and  she  eventually  sailed  for  Japan 
with  her  strange  freight. 

The  frequency  of  accidents  to  submarines 
has  led  the  German  Grovernment  to  construct 
a  special  vessel  for  raising  sunken  submarines, 


has  practically  two  hulls,  linked  together  at 
the  upper  part  in  a  fore  and  aft  direction. 
A  small  craft  can  thus  be  propelled  into  the 
archlike  aperture  between  the  two  hulls,  and 
by  means  of  the  hoisting  gear  supported  from 
the  lattice-work  portals  or  bridges  fitted  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  dock-ship  it  can  be 
lifted  clear  of  the  water.  When  this  operation 
is  completed,  beams  are  swung  out  from  both 
of  the  inner  sides  of  the  dock-ship,  thus 
forming  a  platform  for  the  support  of  the 
small  vessel.  The  Vulkan,  as  the  dock-ship 
is  called,  is  269  feet  long  and  77  feet  wide, 
this  great  width  being  necessary  to  allow  the 
passage  of  small  craft  between  the  two  hulls. 
Her  lifting  capacity  is    1,400  tons,   and  two 


SOME    EXTRAORDINARY    SHIPBUILDING    FEATS.       125 


vessels  can  be  carried  at  the  same  time.  In 
the  event  of  a  submarine  being  unable  through 
any  cause  to  regain  the  surface,  or  a  torpedo 
boat  sinking  after  coUision  or  through  sus- 
taining damage  in  any  other  way,  the  Vulkan 


Fig.    4. — SALVED   PORTION   OF   S.S.    "  MILWAUKEE  "    IN 

Plates  twisted  by  theblastiug  with  dynamite  required  to 

{Photo,  Messrs.  Swan,  Hunter,  and  W 

can  proceed  under  her  own  power  to  tlie 
scene  of  the  accident,  raise  the  sunken  craft, 
and  bring  it  safely  to  port. 

The  feat  of  lengthening  an  existing  ship 
has  several  times  been  carried  out  when, 
owing  to  the  altered  conditions  of  the  trade 


in  which  she  is  employed  or  for  some  other 
reason,  she    has    proved   too   small.     One  of 
the    earliest     cases     of    ship- 
lengthening — at  least  of  which    .  }^'  . 

°  Lengthening:. 

any  accurate  account  has  been 

put  on  record — was  that  of  the 
P.  and  O.  Company's  steamship 
Poonah,  which  in  1874  was 
lengthened  80  feet  under  the 
superintendence  of  Mr.  E.  W. 
De  Rusett,  M.Inst.C.E.  Other 
notable  vessels  similarly  treated 
were  the  P.  and  O.  liners  Rome 
and  Carthage,  the  Cape  mail 
steamer  Scot,  the  Carron  Com- 
pany's steamers  Forth  and 
Thames,  and  the  Norddeutscher 
Lloyd's  liner  Wittekind.  In 
1900  the  last- 
named  vessel  ,,„^  .... 
"Wittekind.' 
was  cut  in  two 

in  the  dry  dock  of  Messrs. 
Swan,  Hunter,  and  Wigham 
Richardson,  pulled  apart  for  60 
feet,  and  a  new  portion  built 
in,  the  ship  being  increased 
from  386  feet  to  446  feet  long. 
Fig.  1  illustrates  the  vessel  in 
dock,  the  two  portions  apart, 
and  the  new  floors  in  position. 
After  this  alteration  the  Witte- 
kind was  to  all  appearances  a 
new  and  perfectly  symmetrical 
ship,  the  work  being  regarded 
by  experts  as  one  of  the  most 
successful  ship  -  lengthening 
feats  ever  undertaken. 


DRY   DOCK, 
cut  her  iu  half. 
igham  Ricliardson. ) 


Many  instances  might  be  cited  to  show  the 
intricate  work  which  shipbuilders  and  re- 
pairers   at    times    are     called 


Ship-repairing 
Extraordinary. 


upon    to    accomplish    after    a 

severe   casualty    at    sea ;    but 

probably  no  more  interesting  and  noteworthy 

cases    of    repair    could    be    quoted   than   the 


126 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


work  at  the  large  steamer  Milwaukee  and 
the  White  Star  liner  Suevic.  In  the  autumn 
of  1898  the  former  vessel  went  ashore  at 
Port  Errol,  near  Peterhead,  in  bad  weather. 
It  was  soon  recognized  that  the 
whole  of  the  vessel  could  not 
be  salved,  but  that,  while  a 
large  portion  of  the  fore  end  was  inextricably 
jammed,  the  remainder,  if  detached  there- 
from, might  perhaps  be  successfully  floated. 


The 
"Milwaukee." 


Fig.   5. — SALVED   PORTION   OF   S.S.    "  MILWAUKEE  "    WITH   DAMAGED 
PLATES   REMOVED. 
{PhotO:  Messrs.  Swan,  Hunter,,  and 


To  effect  the   severance  a  belt  of   dynamite 
cartridges   was   exploded   round  the   shell   of 
the  vessel,  and  after  several  such  explosions 
a  complete  division  was  made  forward  of  the 
machinery    space    without    seriously    injuring 
the    adjacent    parts    of    the    structure.      So 
strongly  had  the  Milwaukee  been  constructed 
that    no    less    than    3,350    lbs,    of    dynamite 
were  exploded  in  cutting  her  asunder.     The 
most      interesting      demonstration      of      her 
strength,  however,  was  afforded 
by   the   subsequent   behaviour 
of   the    transverse   water-tight 
bulkhead  at  the  forward  end 
of  the  boiler  space,  upon  the 
strength     and      tightness      of 
which     the     vessel     depended 
to  keep  her  afloat  until  placed 
in  dry  dock  for  repairs.     When 
cut    in    two    the    after    part, 
extending  from  just  before  the 
forward  end  of  the  navigating 
bridge,    was    not    only    safely 
floated,    but    towed    with    the 
bulkhead    end    foremost    (the 
tug-boats    being    assisted    by 
the  ship's  own  engines)  to  the 
Tyne,  and  moored  there  until 
a  now  bow-end  had  been  built, 
launched,     and     made     ready 
for       connection     to     it.       A 
facsimile    of   the   fore  part   of 
the  vessel  left  behind  on  the 
Scottish     coast,    180    feet     in 
length,   was   launched   by  the 
original  builders  of  the  vessel 
(Messrs.    Swan,     Hunter,    and 
Wigham  Richardson),  and  for 
several     days     afterwards   the 
bow  and  stern  portions  of  the 
Milwaukee  floated  side  by  side 
and  pointed  in  the  same  direc- 
tion   (see   Fig.    6),  one  of  the 

Wigham  Riclardson.)     ^^^Y  ^^^  instances,  if  not  the 
only    one,   in   which   the   bow 


SOME    EXTRAORDINARY    SHIPBUILDING    FEATS.       127 


end  the  stern  of  a  vessel  have  been  known  to 
look  the  same  way.  Our  illustrations  tell  the 
interesting  story.  Fig.  4  shows  the  salved 
portion  of  the  vessel  in  dry  dock,  with  dyna- 
mite-fractured ends  ;  Fig.  5  shows  the 
fractured  and  ragged  ends 
removed  ;  and  Fig.  6  illustrater, 
the  old  and  new  parts  afloat 
before  being  joined  together. 
So  accurately  was  the  whole 
of  the  work  accomplished  that 
the  vessel's  principal  dimen- 
sions were  exactly  as  they  had 
been,  and  her  gross  tonnage 
differed  by  only  six  tons  from 
what  it  had  been  originally. 
During  the  South  African  War 
the  Milwaukee  was  chartered 
by  the  British  Grovernment  as 
a  transport,  and  it  was  in  this 
vessel  that  the  redoubtable 
Boer  general  Cronje  was  sent 
to  St.  Helena  after  his  sur- 
render to  the  British  forces. 
Since  that  time  the  vessel  has 
seen  much  service  in  the  heavy 
North  Atlantic  trade,  and  she 
has  never  shown  any  signs  of 
weakness. 

The  story  of  the  more  recent 
disaster  which  overtook  the 
White  Star  liner  Suevic,  by 
running  ashore  at  the  Lizard, 
will  be  remembered  by  many 
of  our  readers.  The  recov- 
ered portion  of  the  vessel — 
representing  about  two-thirds 
of  her  total  length,  and  comprising  the  valu- 
able propelling  machinery — 
was  safely  towed  round  to 
Southampton,  docked  there, 
and  generally  prepared  for  junction  with  a  new 
forward  part,  which  was  built  and  launched 
by  Messrs.  Harland  and  Wolff.  The  modus 
operandi  of  joining  the  two  portions  in  dry 


dock  was  generally  similar  to  that  followed 
in  the  case  of  the  Milwaukee,  and  now  the 
vessel  is  once  more  "  walking  the  waters 
like  a  thing  of  life." 

And    thus    we    might    continue    to    relate 


Vm.  G.- 


OLD    AXD    NEW    PARTS    OF    S.S.         MILWAUKEE 
BEFORE    BEING   JOINED    TOGETHER. 


AFLOAT 


The 
"  Suevic." 


Probably  the  only  instance  in  which  the  two  ends  of  a  ship  have  pointed 
in  the  same  direction. 


instance  after  instance  of  proud  ships  being 
overtaken  with  disaster  and  returning  crippled 
to  port  after  having  been  liberated  by  brave 
salvors  from  the  grip  of  the  rocks,  where, 
perhaps,  they  have  lain  for  many  weeks 
battered  by  the  force  of  angry  gales  ;  or  we 
might  tell  how  the  skill  of  the  shipbuilder 
and  repairer  once   more   makes  the  vessel — 


128 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


which  after  coUisioli  had  to  return  to  port 
leaking  hke  the  proverbial  sieve — stout  and 
strong,  and  ready  to  "  laugh  at  all  dis- 
aster ;  "  but  space  will  not  permit.  We 
shall  conclude  this  section  of  the  article  by 
presenting  our  readers  with  a  reproduction 
(Fig.  7)  of  a  photograph  (one 
might  almost  be  inclined  to 
doubt  that  it  was  a  genuine 
photograph)  of  the  bows  of  the  paddle-steamer 
Mabel    Grace,    after  having  been   in  collision 


The  "Mabel 
Grace." 


when  travelhng  about  twenty-one  knots  an 
hour.  The  vessel  was  also  damaged  by  fire 
through  the  capsizing  of  the  cabin  stoves  at  the 
moment  of  the  collision.  It  was  found  neces- 
sary to  cut  o£E  about  forty  feet  from  the 
steamer's  length  forward  and  replace  it.  The 
work  of  renewal  and  repairs,  which  included 
a  complete  overhaul  of  the  engines  and 
boilers,  as  they  had  been  disturbed  by  the 
shock  of  the  collision,  was  carried  out  by 
the  Thames  Iron  Works  Company, 


Fig.    7, — THE    "  MABEL   GRACE  "   IN   DRY   DOCK   AFTER    COLLISION. 


RAILROADMEN    REPELLING   AN   ATTACK   BY    INDIANS. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    FIRST 
AMERICAN   TRANS-CONTINENTAL 

RAILROAD. 

BY    G.    L.    FOWLER, 

Member  of  the  American   Railway  Master   Mechanics'   Association. 


SEVENTY  years  ago  the  country  lying 
west  of  the  great  Missouri  River  was 
practically  an  unknown*  country,  in 
which  very  little  interest  was  taken  by  the 
population  of  the  Eastern  States.  Califor- 
nia, on  the  Pacific  Coast,  was  part  of  Mexico. 
To  reach  it  meant  a  weary  sea  voyage  of 
several  months  round  the  stormy  Horn,  or 
a  toilsome  land  journey  across  plains  and 
deserts  tenanted  only  by  hostile  Indians,  who 
hovered  continually  on  the  flanks  and  in 
front  and  rear  of  the  canvas-covered,  ox- 
drawn  wagon.  In  the  very  early  days  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  Lewis  and  Clarke  made 
their  famous  expedition  across  the  continent, 
reaching  the  Pacific  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  River.  Daring  hunters  like  Jim 
Bridger,  Jacques  Laramie,  and  the  "  Path- 
finder " — General  John  C.  Fremont — followed, 
and  in  1 832  a  white  man  first  took  a  team  over 
the  continental  divide. 

(1,408) 


Asa  Whitney. 


As  early  as  1830,  Asa  Whitney  began  to 
dream  dreams  of  a  great  railroad  running  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  which  should  pour  the  riches 
of  China,  Japan,  and  India 
into  the  lap  of  the  population 
of  the  Atlantic  coast.  Unable  to  realize  that 
his  schemes  were  far  ahead  of  their  time,  he 
wasted  his  wealth  in  vain  attempts  to  gain 
the  popular  ear,  and  died  a  poor  man.  More 
practical  than  Whitney,  Brigham  Young  led 
his  band  of  Mormons  in  1847  across  the  great 
desert,  and  founded  Salt  Lake  City,  thus 
establishing,  as  it  were,  a  half-way  house  for  a 
trans-continental  route.  In  the  following  year 
a  treaty  was  ratified  between  the  Grovern- 
ments  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  by 
which  the  whole  of  upper  California  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States. 

Then  followed  the  gold  discoveries  of  1849. 
Far-away  California,  a  name  scarcely  yet  heard 
of  by  the  mob,  jumped  into  fame  as  an  El 

9  VOL.  III. 


130 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


IN    THE    PRAIRIES,    UNION    PACIFIC    RAILROAD. 


Dorado.  Thousands  of  gold-seekers  rounded 
the  Horn,  crossed  the  isthmus,  and  pushed 
across  the  great  American  desert  and  the 
rugged  steeps  of  the  Rockies  and  Sierras. 
It  is  said  that  one  hundred 
Gold  Dis-      thousand    souls   used   the   old 

California.  '^^^^^^  *^^il  yearly— the  Over- 
land Route,  as  it  came  to  be 
called.  Towns  sprang  up  on  the  line  of 
march  of  the  long  wagon  trains  of  emi- 
grants ;  coach  services  were  run  more  or  less  to 
schedule  ;  the  Pony  Express  was  estabhshed. 
Those  were  spacious  times,  replete  with  stories 
of  the  outlaw's  gun  and  the  Indian's  scalping 
knife,  of  terrible  hardships  cheerfully  undergone 
by  enthusiasts,  who  saw  the  glitter  of  gold  in 
every  grain  of  sand,  or  a  wealth  of  agricul- 
tural productiveness  in  every  sheltered  valley. 


The 
Panama 
Railroad. 


The  Overland  Route  and  the  Pony  Express 
were  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  travelling  public.  In  1855  the  Panama 
Isthmus  Railroad  was  opened, 
and  yielded  a  golden  harvest 
to  the  promoters.  It  deflected 
much  of  the  desert  traffic. 

Meanwhile  the  Government  was  waking  up 
to  the  need  for  a  means  of  reliable  and  quick 
communication  with  California.  All  through 
the  'fifties,  while  the  tumult 
of  pro-  and  anti-slavery  feehng 
was  creating  a  turmoil  in  the 
settled  sections  of  the  country, 
scouts  and  engineers  searched  the  mountains 
for  passes  that  should  make  the  building  of 
a  railroad  a  possibility.  This  was  done  not 
only  by  the  Government  and  the  men  inter- 


Surveys 
across  the 
Continent. 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANS-CONTTXENTAL   RAILROAD      131 


ested  in  the  promotion  of  the  trans-continental 
railroad,  but  by  the  employees  of  other  systems 
building  westward  from  Chicago.  These  last 
did  not  expect  or  desire  to  compete  for  the 
construction  or  to  gain  control  of  the  Pacific 
Railroad,  but  wished  to  know  the  point  from 
which  it  would  jump  off  at  the  eastward  end,  so 
that  they  might  aim  their  own  pioneer  lines, 
which  were  reaching  out  like  long  tentacles 
from  points  of  vantage  in  the  middle  west 
towards  that  point,  and  make  connections  of 
great  value  when  the  work  was  done.  Up  and 
down  the  prairies  small  bands  of  surveyors  ran 
their  lines,  at  all  latitudes  between  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  Canadian  border  line — most 
thickly  along  the  forty-second  parallel,  near 
which  over  twenty-five  thousand  miles  of  re- 
connaissances are  said  to  have  been  made. 
On  the  whole  the  country  was  open  and  rolling, 
with  a  constantly  ascending  grade  from  the 
Missouri  to  the  Rockies,  easy  for  the  location 
of  transit  lines  and  offering  few  engineering 
difficulties  as  we  look  upon  them  to-day. 
But  this  whole  territory  swarmed  with  savage 
Indians,  whose  delight  it  had  been  for  years 
to  cut  off  the  emigrant  train,  stampede  the 
horses  and  cattle,  murder  the  men,  and 
capture  the  women  and  children.  Hence  the 
small  parties  of  engineers  w^ork- 
ing  backwards  and  forwards 
offered  the  same  inducement 
to  bloodshed  and  theft,  and  few  would  have 
escaped  had  it  not  been  for  the  guard  of 
cavalry  that  was  furnished.  All  through  the 
reports  of  the  engineers  we  read  of  Indian 
hostilities,  of  the  unsettled  state  of  the  coun- 
try, and  how  certain  reconnaissances  had  to  be 
given  up  because  of  the  insufficient  garrison 
at  Government  posts. 

As  a  result  of  the  preliminary  surveys  it  was 
decided  that  Omaha,  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  Missouri,  must  be  the  starting-point.  But 
for  a  time  nothing  was  done.  Various  events 
conspired  against  a  scheme  for  a  trans- 
continental  railroad   coming   to    a    successful 


Indian 
Hostility. 


The  Central 

Pacific 

Company. 


issue.  Sectional  jealousies,  arising  out  of  the 
slavery  question,  prevented  a  definite  marking 
out  of  the  actual  line  to  be  taken.  The  South 
would  find  no  money  for  a  Northern  route  ; 
in  the  North  no  capital  could  be  raised  for  a 
Southern  line. 

Politics  eventually  helped  matters,  how- 
ever. In  1861  a  few  small  merchants  of 
Sacramento  organized  the  Central  Pacific 
Company  (now  merged  into 
the  Southern  Pacific)  to  carry 
a  track  eastwards  to  the 
boimdary  of  California  to  meet 
a  line  which,  they  urged,  should  be  built 
westwards  from  the  Missouri.  The  Sacramento 
merchants  received  support  from  intelligent 
opinion  in  the  Eastern  States,  where,  apart 
from  the  lure  of  the  supposed  Asian  traffic 
that  a  trans-continental  track  would  create,  it 
was  now  realized  that  the  isolation  of  a  single 
state  had  its  dangers.  The  building  of  the 
suggested  railroad  would  bind  California  more 
closely  to  the  Northern — anti-slavery — interest, 
and  would  enable  the  United  States  to  repel  with 
greater  promptness  any  attack  on  the  coast 
ports,  and  to  control  the  Indian  outbreaks 
which  at  times  assumed  serious  proportions. 

Accordingly,  in  1862,  Congress  subsidized 
corporations  to  build  the  Union  Pacific  and 
Central  Pacific  Railroads,  starting  from  Omaha 
and  Sacramento  respectively. 
The  United  States  Govern- 
ment undertook  to  issue  to  the 
said  corporations  thirty-year  bonds,  bearing 
6  per  cent,  interest,  to  be  delivered  in  blocks 
as  each  forty  miles  of  track  was  completed, 
examined,  and  accepted.  For  the  plain 
divisions  the  subsidy  was  fixed  at  $16,000  per 
mile  ;  for  mountain  divisions,  at  $48,000  per 
mile  ;  and  at  $32,000  per  mile  for  the  desert 
divisions,  where,  though  the  "  going  "  would 
be  easy,  the  transport  of  men  and  materials 
would  prove  a  difficult  and  costly  business.  In 
addition,  alternate  sections  of  land  flanking 
the  railway  were  allotted  to  the  promoters. 


The  Charter 
of  1862. 


132  ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Up 


LIMITED    EXPRESS    NEAR    GRAND    ISLAND. 


(FJiolo,   Union  Pacific  Railway  Company.) 


So  the  scheme  was  launched.  But  though 
men  approved  with  their  mouths  and  on  paper, 
the  needful  capital  for  starting  operations  was 
not  forthcoming  in  adequate  quantities.  At 
last,  however,  amid  the  waving  of  flags  and 
firing  of  guns  and  speechifying,  the  ground 
was  broken  at  Omaha,  Nebraska,  on  Decem- 
ber 3,  1863.  A  commencement  had  already 
been  made  at  the  western  end  by  the  Central 
Pacific  Company. 

The  money  available  was  soon  exhausted, 
and  a  long  pause  ensued.  We  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  the  United  States  were 
at  this  time  in  the  throes  of  the 
Civil  War.  In  the  Eastern 
and  Southern  States  fierce 
battles  were  being  fought,  and  money  was 
being  poured  out  to  keep  the  Northern  army 
in  the  field.  Little  wonder,  then,  that  even 
so  important  an  enterprise  as  this  great  rail- 
road hung  fire  for  lack  of  funds.  But  Congress, 
having  put  its  hand  to  the  plough,  did  not 


A  Start  and 
a  Halt. 


The  Second 
Charter. 


look  back.  To  attract  capitalists,  it  amended 
the  original  charter  in  1864,  doubling  the  land 
grant.  After  some  months  of  scraping  and 
scratching  for  money,  enough 
was  collected  to  permit  a 
second  start  in  1864.  Once 
more  the  excheque"  became  depleted,  and  the 
Government,  as  a  last  resort,  gave  permission 
for  the  organizing  of  a  construction  company, 
which  should  finance  the  undertaking  and 
have  a  first  mortgage  on  the  property.  In 
this  way  the  sinews  of  war  were  provided. 

Be  it  understood  that  in  the  early  'sixties 
Omaha  was  not  yet  in  direct  railway  com- 
munication with  the  Eastern  manufacturing 
states,  and  that  as  a  result  supplies  had  to  be 
brought  round  to  Omaha  by  water  at  great 
expense.  We  are  told,  too,  that  the  engineer- 
ing of  the  finances  by  the  construction  com- 
pany— to  its  own  undue  profit — was  hardly 
less  wonderful  than  that  required  for  the 
most  difficult  sections  of  the  track. 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILROAD.     133 


However,  in  1865  a  fair  and  last  start  was 
made  at  the  Missouri  end.  During  this  year 
about  40  miles  of  rails  were  laid,  and  the  first 
instalment  of  the  subsidy  paid 


The  Railroad 
leaves  Omaha. 


over  by  Government.  Engi- 
neering difficulties  were  small 
eastwards  of  the  Rockies.  From  Omaha  the 
road  climbs  to  the  top  of  the  intervening  high 
ground,  and  then  cuts  across  to  the  valley  of 
the  Platte,  which  it  follows  to  the  Forks,  290 
miles  from  Omaha.  Thence  it  runs  along  the 
south  fork  of  the  Platte  to  Julesberg,  372 
miles.  In  this  stretch  there  is  a  long  steady 
climb  following  the  grade  of  the  river,  and 
rising  from  an  elevation  of  967  feet  at  Omaha  to 
2,830  feet  at  North  Platte  at  the  Forks.  It  is 
generally  conceded  that,  from  an  engineering 
point  of  view,  it  would  have  been  advantageous 
to  carry  the  line  along  the  North  Platte  and 
Sweetwater  to  South  Pass,  and  down  the 
Snake  River  and  Columbia  River  to  Portland. 
This  would  have  been  a  longer  route,  however, 
and  as  the  road  had  to  be  built  through  almost 
unexplored  country,  wherein  it  was  not  ex- 
pected to  develop  a  local  business,  shortness 
was  of  prime  importance  with  funds  so  hard 
to  get,  and  every  foot  adding  to  the  total  cost. 
In  1866  the  Union  Pacific  Company  laid  260 
miles  of  track  ;  in  1867,  240.  This  brought 
rail-head  to  Cheyenne  and  the  edge  of  the 
Rockies.     The     difficulties     of 


In  the 
Rockies. 


the  mountain  passes  began  to 
crowd  upon  the  engineers,  and 
the  work  of  location  to  increase  correspond- 
ingly. It  was  no  longer  a  question  of  follow- 
ing the  easy  grades  of  a  prairie  river,  but  of 
surmounting  granite  hills  at  the  prescribed 
grade  of  116  feet  to  the  mile. 

Reconnaissance    and    scouting    had    to    be 
carried  out  over  a  wide  belt  of  territory  be- 
fore the  proper  location  could 


The  Perils  of 
Surveying. 


be    obtained.      Sometimes    it 
seemed  as  though  accident  and 

chance  had  much  to  do  with  the  final  selection. 

Yet  diligent  search,  hard  work,  and  danger 


always  preceded  success.  Take  the  case  of 
the  discovery  of  the  route  to  Sherman  Pass  in 
the  Rockies  by  General  Dodge,  chief  engineer 
of  the  railroad.  In  his  narrative  of  the  episode 
Dodge  says:  "While  returning  from  the  Powder 
River  campaign  [1864-65]  I  was  in  the  habit  of 
leaving  my  troops  and  train,  and,  with  a  few 
men,  examining  all  the  approaches  and  passes 
from  Fort  Fetterman  south  over  the  secondary 
range  of  mountains  known  as  the  Black  Hills, 
the  most  difficult  to  overcome  with  proper 
grades,  of  all  the  ranges,  on  account  of  its 
short  slopes  and  great  height.  When  I  reached 
the  Lodge  Pole  Creek,  up  which  went  the 
overland  trail,  I  took  a  few  mounted  men — I 
think  six — and  with  one  of  my  scouts  as  guide 
went  up  the  creek  to  the  summit  of  Cheyenne 
Pass,  striking  south  along  the  crest  of  the 
mountains  to  obtain  a  good  view  of  the  country, 
the  troops  and  the  train  at  the  same  time 
passing  along  the  east  base  of  the  mountains 
on  what  was  known  as  the  St.  Vrain  and  the 
Laramie  trail.  About  noon,  when  in  the 
valley  tributary  of  the  Crow  Creek,  we  dis- 
covered Indians,  who  at  the  same  time  dis- 
covered us.  They  were  between  us  and  our 
train,  I  saw  our  danger,  and  took  means 
immediately  to  reach  the  ridge  and  try  to 
head  them  off,  and  follow  it  to  where  the 
cavalry  could -see  our  signal.  We  dismounted 
and  started  down  the  ridge,  holding  the  In- 
dians at  bay,  when  they  came  too  near,  with 
our  Winchesters.  It  was  nearly  night  when 
the  troops  saw  our  smoke  signals  of  danger, 
and  came  to  our  relief  ;  and  in  going  to  the 
train  we  followed  the  ridge  until  I  discovered 
it  led  down  to  the  plains  without  a  break.  I 
ihen  said  to  our  guide  that,  if  we  saved  our 
scalps,  I  believed  that  we  had  found  the  cross- 
ing of  the  Black  Hills.  And  it  is  on  this 
ridge  between  Lone  Tree  and  Crow  Creek  that 
the  wonderful  line  over  the  mountains  was 
built.  For  two  years  all  explorations  had 
failed  to  find  a  satisfactory  crossing  of  this 
range."     Not  only  had  a  crossing  been  found, 


i 

1* 

tii. 
fid 

if 

■ 

w 

Nv-  ..^iii.^-^--«--^?==^-r. .,                    : 

^^^^^^^ 

^H 

-■       -.  ,  ,,- --..  .  •  .,i#>-..:yi.v^i".^g:.>^.  -t^j.-v-.-^-.-'wi.^yfv^./ 

^.^  ir.i?8i^"- 

^^^H '~  . 

»>;M<;vt',;A,:V-;^;j,,^--- ^,i<f.  ,i'\.J«  •■*V.«-.;..v.iTir;  •■*<^  J   .                                                       

"^^K^^^^^^^Kti  "^  "^ 

TRESTLE    rOR    LARGE    PILL    ACROSS    PAPIO    VALLEY,    OMAHA    CUT-OFF. 
DUMPING    EARTH    FROM    TRESTLE    TO    FORM    EMBANKMENT,    OMAHA    CUT-OFF. 


{Photos,  J.  E.  Stimson.) 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILROAD.     135 


but  one  that  permitted  a  grade  of  80  feet  to 
the  mile  instead  of  the  116  feet  allowed 
in  the  Government  agreement, 
and  enabled  the  company  to 


Sherman  Pass 
discovered. 


Tunnels. 


make  large  profits  out  of  the 
high  subsidy  granted  for  the  mountain  divi- 
sion. The  chief  obstacle  was  the  driving  of 
four  tunnels  with  a  total  length  of  1,792  feet. 
Of  these,  No.  2,  in  Echo  Caiion,  972  miles  from 
Omaha,  and  772  feet  long,  had  to  be  com- 
menced in  July  1868,  when  rail-head  was  still 

300  miles  to  the  eastward,  so 

as  not  to  delay  the  laying  of  the 
rails  when  the  locomotives  reached  the  place. 
The  local  stone  was  unsuitable  for  lining  pur- 
poses, and  as  all  available  transportation  was 
required  for  handling  tools,  materials,  and 
provisions,  no  stone  could  be  brought  from 
elsewhere,  so  the  tunnel  had  to  be  lined  with 
timber.  Though  the  men  worked  hard,  the 
graders  were  upon  them  before  they  had  won 
through.  The  engineers,  in  order  to  get  the  line 
past  the  block,  constructed  two  Y-shaped  necks 
on  the  mountain  side.  The  train  passed  up  one 
leg  into  the  neck — which  was  long  enough  to 
hold  a  train — and  then  backed  out  up  the 
other  leg  to  the  second  Y,  where  the  engine  got 
in  front  once  more. 

At  tunnel  No.  3,  driven  through  black  lime- 
stone^ and  quartzite,  the  engineer  in  charge 
decided  to  use  nitro-glycerine  instead  of 
powder.  Though  some  of  the  men  struck,  on 
the  ground  that  two  shifts  could  now  do 
the  work  that  formerly  required  three,  the 
change  of  explosive  effected  a  saving  of 
$40,000,  and,  what  was  even  more  important, 
enabled  the  tunnel  to  be  put  through  in  time. 
Apart  from  the  actual  engineering  diffi- 
culties were  those  arising  out  of  the  great 
distance  separating  the  workers  from  Omaha, 

the    base    of    supplies.      The 
High  Cost  of  ^^^  demanded  by  the  men 

Materials.  %  .  ,       *^ 

— often     m     advance  —  were 

vastly   in   excess   of   those   paid    for   similar 
service  elsewhere.     There  was  no  coal,  wood. 


or  fuel  of  any  other  sort  on  the  plains,  and 
no  timber  to  make  sleepers  of,  so  that  many 
of  the  last  cost  the  company  ten  shillings 
each.  The  workmen  were  discouraged  by  the 
barrenness,  and  grew  weary  of  the  cloudless 
sky  and  dry  white  earth,  and  the  lack  of 
supplies  of  fresh  food. 

But  probably  the  greatest  trouble  in  the 
Rockies  division  arose  from  the  frequent  at- 
tacks by  Indians.  It  has  been  said  that  an 
Indian  arrow  was  shot  for  every 
spike  driven  into  a  tie.     That 


Indians  on 
the  War-path. 


may  be  only  a  picturesque 
exaggeration  ;  yet  it  Ls  a  fact  that  the  annals 
of  the  construction  period  are  filled  with 
accounts  of  desperate  fights  between  the 
track-layer  and  the  war-painted  Redskin.  The 
Indians  had  not  molested  Brigham  Young's 
party,  and  had  done  comparatively  little  dam- 
age to  the  trains  of  the  "  'forty-niners  "  hurry- 
ing to  the  Calif  ornian  goldfields.  But  when  the 
white  man  came  with  his  trail  of  steel  and  iron 
horse,  and  was  guilty  of  ruthless  and  wanton 
destruction  of  the  buffalo — the  source  of  In- 
dian food  and  clothing — the  savage  went  on 
the  war-path  with  a  craft  and  pertinacity  that 
soon  made  it  necessary  to  send  troops  to  pro- 
tect the  workmen.  These  last  were  them- 
selves, in  many  cases,  old  soldiers  who  had 
seen  service  during  the  Civil  War  ;  who  were 
as  ready  to  fight  an  Indian  as  to  lay  a  tie  or 
fix  a  spike  ;  who  at  a  word  of  command  would 
fall  in,  deploy  as  skirmishers,  and  repel  an 
attack,  and  then  return  calmly  to  their  work. 
They  formed,  with  their  twofold  qualifications, 
an  army  of  the  pick  and  rifle  that  thought 
little  of  danger.  It  was  the  latter  trait — con- 
tempt of  perils  with  which  they  had  become 
familiar — that  accounted  for  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  entries  on  the  death-roll.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  Pawnees,  who  had 
been  treated  very  badly  by  the  Sioux,  took 
the  white  man's  side,  and  proved  of  no  little 
value  in  checkmating  attacks. 

^^^hile  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  was  being 


136 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


UNION   PACIFIC    TRACK    WEST    OF    LAWRENCE    STATION. 


pushed  ahead,  the  Central   Pacific   also   pro- 
gressed rapidly.     Starting   from   Sacramento, 
about     140    miles    from    San 
Progress  of    p'rancisco,    it    commences    at 

r»     .^.  once  to  climb  the  Sierra  Ne- 

Paciiic. 

vada,  and  in  105  miles  attains 
an  elevation  of  over  7,000  feet  at  Summit, 
without  any  undulations  of  the  track,  and  by  a 
constant  rise  from  the  foot-hills  to  that  point. 
A  peculiarity  of  the  route  is  the  fact  that  the 
engineers  have  taken  advantage  of  a  bold  ridge 
which  runs  out  from  the  main  chain  of  moun- 
tains, and  reaches  nearly  to  Sacramento,  just 
as  the  ridge  at  Sherman  Pass  on  the  Union 
Pacific  runs  from  the  Rockies  down  to  the 
plains.  By  following  this  ridge  all  the  way 
up  to  the  sources  of  the  South  Yuba,  an  ex- 


cellent natural  grade  was  obtained,  broken 
by  but  few  ravines,  and  having  a  uniform 
and  continuous  ascent.  Such  another  path 
across  the  mountains  is  not  to  be  found  for 
hundreds  of  miles  up  or  down  the  range,  and, 
in  all  of  the  passes  used  by  wagons  the 
mountain  side  is  too  precipitous  to  be  suit- 
able for  railway  purposes. 

From  the  valley  of  the  South  Yuba  across 
to  the  Truckee  River,  the  deep  snow  belt, 
thirty-five  miles  broad,  is  met.  For  the 
greater  part  of  this  distance 
the  road  follows  a  side-hill 
line,  which  for  the  most  part 
is  so  sheltered  as  to  be  available  for  winter 
traffic.  Here  the  snow-sheds  are  located,  and 
between  them  are  embankments  and  tunnels, 


The 
Snow  Belt. 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILROAD.     137 


so  that  the  line  is  kept  open  all  the  winter 
through  without  an  excessive  amount  of  labour. 
The  amount  of  snow  that  falls  in  the  Sierras  is 
at  times  enormous.  In  the  winter  of  1866-67 
there  were  forty-four  snowstorms,  varying 
from  a  short  squall,  with  its  quarter  of  an  inch 
of  snow,  to  a  gale  lasting  a  fortnight,  and 
depositing  a  ten-foot  blanket.  The  freshly- 
fallen  snow  was  very  light,  and  impassable 
except  on  snow-shoes.  It  lay  for  a  long  time. 
One  of  the  constructing  engineers  related  how 
in  June  a  road  had  to  be  cut  through  a  twenty- 
five  feet  drift  in  weather  so  warm  that  within 
a  week  watering  carts  were  being  used  to  lay 
the  dust  on  the  road  between  the  partially 
melted  banks  of  snow. 

Tlie  coifrage  required  to  put  a  line  through 
this  country  can  hardly  be  appreciated  to- 
day. It  must  be  remembered  that  in  1863, 
when    the   road    was    started, 


High 
Elevations. 


there  were  no  precedents  for 
a  work  of  this  magnitude,  es- 
pecially at  such  elevations,  which  were  more 
than  twice  as  great  as  any  yet  attained  by  a 
railway  in  the  United  States.     The  following 


table  of  elevations  on  the  Central  Pacific  is 
instructive  : — 

Between  sea-level  and  1,000  ft.  altitude,  SIJ  miles  of  track. 


1,000  ft.  and  2,000  ft. 

.        14       „ 

2,000  ft.  and  3,000  ft. 

,        10       „ 

3,000  ft.  and  4,000  ft. 

,        22i     „ 

4,000  ft.  and  5,000  ft. 

4(50     „ 

„          5,000  ft.  and  0,000  ft. 

12bh   „ 

6,000  ft.  and  7,000  ft. 

^       „ 

Above  7,000  ft. 

,                li        M               „ 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  snows  are 
not  the  formidable  obstacle  that  they  were 
expected  to  be,  and  has  justified  fully  the 
good  judgment  of  the  engineers  in  carrying 
the  line  where  they  did.  The  tunnels  on  the 
Central  Pacific  aggregated  6,213  feet,  the 
longest  item  being  but  1,658  feet.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  miles  of  snow-sheds — arti- 
ficial tunnels,  in  fact — had  to  be  made  to  pro- 
tect the  line  from  avalanches  and  earth  sUdes. 

From  Summit  to  the  great  interior  basin, 
which  lies  4,000  to  5,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  the  descent 
was  comparatively  easy.  By 
the  time  that  the  Union  Pacific 
had  reached  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Wasatch 
Mountains    and    the    Central    Pacific  builders 


Public 
Interest 
aroused. 


TRESTLE    OF   LUCIlf    CUT-OFF. 


{Photo,  J.  E.  Stimson.) 


138 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


FILLING    IN    FROM    TRESTLE    ON    LUCIN    CUT-OFF. 


{Photo,  Southern  Pacific  Railway  Company.) 


were  approaching  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  public 
interest  in  the  coming  completion  of  the 
track  increased  greatly.  Special  correspond- 
ents flashed  messages  from  the  "  front  "  to 
their  respective  journals,  giving  particulars  of 
the  daily  advance. 

The  railway  builders  had  now  to  decide 
whether  they  should  pass  to  the  north  or  to 
the  south  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  a  body  of 
water  over  80  miles  long.  If 
the  north  were  selected,  the 
city  of  the  Mormons  would  be 
left  on  a  branch  line.  It  was  preached  from 
the  pulpits  that  the  line  must  take  the  south- 
erly route  ;  the  railway  surveyors  announced 
that  the  northerly  route  was  vastly  prefer- 
able. Then  the  head  of  the  Mormon  Church, 
Brigham  Young,  issued  an  edict  forbidding  his 
people  to  contract  or  work  for  the  Union 
Pacific,  and  exerted  his  great  influence  on 
behalf  of  the  Central  Pacific,  which  was  creep- 
ing towards  the  lake,  in  hopes  that  it  might 


Anxiety  of 
the  Mormons. 


be  induced  to  pass  at  the  southern  end.  But 
his  expectations  were  disappointed  by  the 
physical  features  of  the  country.  The  Central 
Pacific's  explorations  confirmed  the  decision 
of  the  Union  Pacific — to  go  north.  So  the 
Mormons  accepted  the  inevitable,  and  assisted 
the  completion  of  the  work,  which  would  at 
least  bring  them  much  nearer  than  before  to 
centres  of,  civilization,  by  means  of  a  fifty- 
mile  branch  track. 

At  Ogden,  about  twenty-five  miles  east  of 
the  lake,  the  two  lines  were  to  have  met. 
But  the  Union  Pacific,  getting  there  first,  and 
being  anxious  to  earn  the  sub- 
sidy, pushed  on.  Tlie  Central 
Pacific  folk,  urged  by  the  same 
desire,  in  turn  carried  their  rail-head  past  that 
of  their  rivals.  So  there  was  seen  the  extra- 
ordinary spectacle  of  two  tracks  being  graded 
parallel  to  one  another,  one  of  which  would 
be  of  no  value  whatever.  When  this  stupid 
business    had    been    persisted    in    until    the 


The  Grades 
overlap. 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILROAD.     139 


STEAM    SHOVEL    AT    WORK,    PROMONTORY    POINT,    SALT    LAKE. 


"  overlap  "  was  some  two  hundred  miles  long, 
the  Government  stepped  in,  and  decided 
that  the  rails  should  be  joined  at  Promontory, 
north  of  the  lake. 

May  10,  1869,  was  the  great  day  in  the 
history  of  the  first  trans-continental  track. 
On  that  day  a  small  excursion  party  came 
from  San  Francisco  to  witness 
c^  ..  ^^  the  crowning  ceremony  of  driv- 
ing the  last  four  spikes,  two 
of  gold,  two  of  silver,  into  the  last  tie — of 
highly-polished  Calif ornian  laurel.  Just  be- 
fore noon  the  tie  was  brought  forward  and 
placed  in  position.  At  the  stroke  of  the 
hour,  after  a  short  prayer  by  a  clergyman 
present,  the  silver  hammer  dropped,  and  the 
signal  was  flashed  over  the  telegraph  to 
Eastern  centres,  announcing  that  the  track 
was  complete,  seven  years  ahead  of  time. 
New  York  city  rang  the  Old  Hundredth  on  its 
church  bells,  and  fired  a  salute  of  a  hundred 
guns.     Chicago  paraded.     Omaha  turned  out 


en  masse.     San  Francisco,  which  had  begun 

the    celebrations    two    days    too    soon,    made 

matters  square  by  prolonging  them   for  two 

days  after  the  event. 

The  first  total   cost  of  the  joint  railroads 

was  officially  returned  at   115,214,587  dollars, 

79  cents.     As  regards  value  for  money,  the 

location    and    construction    of 

the  Union  Pacific  portion  were,        ^^  ,.^" 
rm  ■  Quahty. 

on  the  whole,  good.     This  was 

partly  due  to  the  fact  that  before  the  Govern- 
ment subsidies  were  paid  the  road  had  to  be 
approved,  and  plans  approved  before  con- 
struction began.  Tlie  second  condition  in- 
volved some  injustice  to  the  engineers,  who 
were  more  competent  to  decide  what  was  the 
proper  course  to  take  in  certain  circumstances 
than  were  officials  who  entered  the  country 
for  the  first  time  when  they  came  to  inspect 
work  that  had  been  done.  The  suggestions 
made  by  the  officials  were  often  wrong.  At 
their  instructions  the  grade  was  levelled  over 


140 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


OVERLAND    LIMITED    ON    LUCIN   CUT-OFF   TRESTLE; 


{Photo,  Southern  Pacific  Railway  Company.) 


the  Laramie  plains  by  cuts  in  the  undulations 
of  the  ground.  When  winter  came  the  cuts 
were  blockaded  by  snow,  and  they  had  to  be 
refilled  subsequently  at  a  cost  of  between 
five  and  ten  million  dollars.  Experience 
taught  the  Government  to  worry  the  engineers 
less  and  less  as  the  work  proceeded,  and  to 
trust  Greneral  Dodge  to  take  the  best  line. 
How  thorough  the  general  was  in  his  surveys 
is  shown  by  his  own  words.  "  We  had  to 
study  every  summit,  every  mountain  side, 
every  valley,  to  find  from  the  currents  which 
was  the  snowy  side  and  which  the  barren  ; 
and  over  the  whole  1,500  miles  of  line  located, 
for  three  winters  we  kept  the  engineers  in 
tents  or  dug-outs  watching,  from  four  to  six 
months,  the  drift  of  snow  and  water  to  be 
overcome,  and  the  safest,  surest,  and  most 
effectual  methods  of  doing  it." 

The  report  issued  by  the  Government  Com- 


mission in    1869  made  some  severe  strictures 
on  the  location  of  the  Central  Pacific  through 
the  Sierra  Nevada.       The  cur- 
vature was  excessive  and  need-   ^'''ticisms  of 
lessly    sharp.     Throughout    a        pacific. 
large  portion  the  ascents  and 
descents     had     been     multiplied     needlessly. 
Grades  of  70  to  80  feet  per  mile  had  been  in- 
troduced where  one  of  53  feet  per  mile  would 
have  sufficed,  and  grades  of  53  where  not  half 
that   rate    of    ascent   was  required.      In   the 
Humboldt    Valley,   between   Humboldt   Lake 
and   Humboldt   Wells,  the   difference  in  ele- 
vation  of   a   little  over  1,100  feet  had  been 
overcome  by  ascents  and  descents  amounting 
to  6,232  feet  in  a  distance  of  290  miles. 

In  justice  to  the  builders,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  at  the  time  when  the  line  was 
located  and  construction  carried  out,  the 
facilities  of  the  present  day  were  not  avail- 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILROAD.     141 


Engineering 
Handicaps. 


able  to  the  contractor  and  engineer.  The  prin- 
ciples of  railroading  had  still  to  be  learned  in 
large  part.  Now  it  is  cost  of 
operation  that  is  looked  to. 
Grades  must  be  kept  down  to 
the  minimum  and  curvature  elimhiated  if  pos- 
sible, so  that  the  heavy  tonnage  of  the  later- 
day  train  may  be  hauled  at  least  expense.  The 
steam  shovel,  the  air  drill,  and  dynamite  make 
excavations  and  tunnelling  far  easier  than 
they  were  forty  years  ago.  If  a  hill  or  a 
mountain  intervenes  on  the  route  selected,  it 
is  levelled  or  tunnelled,  and  the  easy-grade 
line  adhered  to.  In  1862  the  means  of  effecting 
such  work  easily  did  not  exist,  and  engineers 
were  accustomed  to  avoid  obstructions  rather 
than  fight  them.  They  skirted  hills  and 
climbed  over  mountains  to  avoid  high  cost 
of  construction.  Though  we  may  now  regard 
the    stretch,  between    the    Missouri    and    the 


Rockies  as  "  easy  "  country,  it  was  not  so 
very  easy  when  every  yard  of  earth  removed 
represented  the  work  of  a  man  with  shovel 
and  pick. 

A  good  deal  of  improvement  was  purposely 
left  to  the  future,  when  traffic  developments 
should  justify  the  expense.     By  the  year  1900 
the  traffic  demanded  that  the 
present     management    should       niPljoving 
take  the  task  of  reconstruction 
in   hand — of   tearing   up   the   old   track   and 
replacing    it,    of    abandoning    sections    alto- 
gether,   of    tunnelling    mountains    to    avoid 
curves    and    severe    gradients,    of    replacing 
wooden  bridges  with  steel. 

From  a  point  on  the  main  track  in  the  west 
part  of  Omaha,  known  as  the  Summit,  to 
Lane,  a  small  station  due  west  from  the  city, 
the  direct  distance  is  about  twelve  miles. 
The  line  taken  originally  by  the  railroad  be- 


SUNSET    AND    OVEKL.\.\U    LIMITED    CROSSINO    SALl     l.AKK 


[Photo,   Southern   Pacific  Railway  Coinyany.) 


142 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


SNOWSHED    ON    SOUTHERN    PACIFIC,    CALIFORNIA. 


The  Omaha 
Cut-off. 


tween  these  points  has  a  length  of  almost 
twenty-one  miles.  The  "  Omaha  Cut-off," 
completed  recently,  takes  the 
air-line  route.  The  country  is 
rugged  and  rolling,  and  the 
hills  are  of  a  friable  material  known  as  "  loess." 
The  drainage  runs  north  and  south,  practically 
at  right  angles  to  the  line,  and  there  are  no 
favourable  water-courses  for  the  line  to  follow 
to  secure  lighter  earthwork.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  curves  necessary  to  connect 
with  the  old  main  line  near  Summit,  and  for  a 
similar  purpose  at  the  west  end,  the  alignment 
is  straight,  running  over  hills  and  valleys 
regardless  of  topography  and  expense.  To 
build  this  line  involved  2,800,000  cubic  yards 
of  excavation  and  about  4,000,000  cubic  yards 
of  embankment.  In  one  case,  in  the  crossing 
of  Big  Papillon  Creek,  the  embankment  is  65 
feet  high  and   5,600  feet  long,   and,   with   a 


width  of  300  feet  at  the  bottom,  contains 
approximately  1,500,000  cubic  yards.  An- 
other fill  across  the  Little  Papillon  is  89  feet 
high  and  3,100  feet  long.  In  this  case  the 
original  width  at  the'  bottom  was  estimated 
to  be  320  feet.  But  in  the  bottom  of  the 
valley  the  soil  is  very  soft,  and  rose  up  on 
each  side  of  the  embankment  as  the  latter 
settled,  adding  nearly  half  a  million  cubic 
yards  to  the  first  estimate. 

An  even  greater  work  than  the  Omaha 
Cut-off  is  the  "  Lucin  Cut-off  "  over  the  Great 
Salt  Lake.  The  original  route  ran,  as  we 
have  seen,  from  Ogden  round  the  north  end 
of  the  lake,  round  many  curves,  and  up  the 
heavy  grades  required  to  surmount  Promon- 
tory and  Kelton  HiUs.  A  short  line  along 
the  north  shore  of  the  lake  was  out  of  the 
question,  because  of  the  extreme  irregularity 
of  the  same. 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TllANS-CU.NTilSE.MAL    ilAlLliOAD 


'■'.•f^r—t 


l^S^f^ 


pj. 


TELESCOPIC    SNOWSHED,    SHOWING    MOVABLE    LENGTH    PUSHED    BACK    INTO    LARGER    SECTION. 
This  arrangement  makes  it  possible  to  isolate  a  snowshed  fire,  and  in  summer  to  give  travellers  a  better  view  of  the  scenery. 


The  Lucin 
Cut-off. 


So  the  reconstructing  engineers  decided  to 
build  a  straight  cut-off  from  Ogden  across 
the  two  northern  arms  of  the  lake  and  the 
promontory  which  separates 
them,  to  Strong's  Knob  on  the 
west  shore,  and  thence  to  Lucin 
over  an  easy  grade.  The  total  length  of  the 
cut-off  is  102" 5  miles,  a  saving  of  43"5  miles 
over  the  old  route. 

The  new  line  has  a  maximum  grade  of  21 
feet  to  the  mile.  From  the  promontory  to 
Strong's  Knob  it  is  level  and  almost  straight. 
The  fall  from  Ogden  to  the  east  shore  is  100 
feet,  and  the  rise  from  Strong's  Knob  to  Lucin 
only  200  feet  in  52  miles.  Both  of  these  allow 
of  very  easy  grades,  the  country  being  quite 
level.  There  are  two  slight  curves,  but  the 
whole  section  from  the  promontory  to  the 
Knob  is  only  26*  3  feet  longer  than  the  air-line 
distance. 


The  line  is  practically  free  from  those  engi- 
neering  obstacles  which   are   generally  found 
in  a  mountainous  region  ;  yet 
it  presents  something  new  to        ^  Great 

the  engineering  world — a  feat   ^ 

°  °  Engineering:. 

found  in  the  execution  to  be 

full  of  difficulties  and  surprises.  The  distance 
from  shore  to  shore  is  about  22  miles,  all  of 
which  is  trestle  and  embankment  in  the  lake 
except  the  short  stretch  of  cutting  across  the 
promontory.  The  distance  between  the  east 
shore  and  the  promontory  is,  roughly,  8|  miles, 
and  over  part  of  this  the  water  has  receded, 
leaving  a  hei  of  mud  which  was  in  many 
places  from  8  to  10  feet  thick  under  the  salt 
crust.  Great  variations  in  the  consistency  of 
the  lake  bottom  were  encountered  during  the 
driving  of  the  piles  for  the,  trestles.  At  times 
a  blow  of  the  "  monkey  "  did  not  sink  the 
pile  more  than  an  inch  or  two  ;  at  others  a 


A    SWITCHBACK    IN    THE    MOUNTAINS. 

CONSTRUCTION    WORK,    CASCADE    BRIDGE,    CALIFORNIA. 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILROAD.     145 


Pile- driving. 


Difficulties. 


single  impact  would  send  it  down  as  many 
feet.  Again,  a  succession  of  blows  might  seem 
to  be  without  effect,  the  pile 
having  struck  a  hard  stratum. 
Suddenly  this  would  give  way,  and  the  pile 
would  drop  several  feet.  It  often  happened 
that  a  pile,  after  having  been  driven  in  from 
30  to  50  feet,  would  rise  a  couple  of  feet 
between  the  blows  of  the  driver. 

In  one  place  a  really  serious  difficulty  was 
encountered.  The  first  pile,  26  feet  long, 
was  driven  out  of  sight  with  a  single  blow. 
A  second  pile,  28  feet  long,  set 
on  top  of  the  first,  also  dis- 
appeared in  like  manner.  Upon  examination 
it  was  discovered  that  the  mud  deposited  by 
the  Bear  River,  flowing  into  the  lake  from  the 
north,  had  accumulated  here  to  a  deptli  of 
50  feet.  To  overcome  the  difficulty  trestles 
were  made  of  two  40-foot  piles  spliced  end  to 
end,  and  on  them  were  laid  the  rails  to  carry 
the  trains  while  rock  was  being  dumped  in 
between  the  trestles  to  form  a  solid  embank- 
ment. The  last  part  of  the  business,  the 
filling  with  rock,  took  a  long  time,  as  the 
material  broke  through  the  salt  crust,  and 
had  to  be  piled  up  from  the  firm  bottom  below 
it.  A  forest  of  two  square  miles'  area  was 
felled  to  supply  timber  for  the  job,  which  cost 
at  least  eight  million  dollars  from  first  to  last. 
Apart  from  the  reduction  of  distance,  the 
curvature  saved  by  the  new  line  would  be 
enough  to  turn  a  train  round  eleven  times  ; 
while  the  power  saved  in  moving  a  train,  owing 
to  the  smaller  mileage,  is  equal  to  that  re- 
quired to  haul  the  weight  of  a  single  passenger 
four  hundred  times  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco. 

In  addition  to  the  two  cut-offs  described 
above,  some  very  long  tunnels  have  been 
driven  through  the  mountains  to  reduce  grades 
and  distances.  The  Central  Pacific  has  been 
practically  rebuilt.  More  than  13,000  degrees 
of  curvature,  and  3,000  feet  of  rise  and  fall, 
have  been  eliminated. 

(1.40S)  2  Q 


After  the  completion  of  the  track  the  Union 
Pacific  leased  its  portion  to  the  Central  Pacific, 
which  was  afterwards  absorbed  by  the  Southern 
Pacific      system.       The      pro- 
moters   discovered    that    but         Recent 
,.,,,  ^       ^,  History  of 

little    revenue    came    to    the     ..      Track 

corporations  from  through 
traffic  with  the  east,  and  that  they  would 
have  to  depend  upon  local  traffic  for  re- 
muneration. Unfortunately,  while  the  country 
was  being  opened  up,  the  railroad  starv^ed, 
and  passed  into  the  hands  of  receivers.  The 
stock  values  fell  almost  to  vanishing  point. 
Then  the  late  Mr.  E.  H.  Harriman  took  the 
Great  Trans-continental  in  hand,  threw  all  his 
extraordinary  energy  into  making  it  pay,  and 
now  the  ordinary  stock  is  quoted  at  about 
a  hundred  per  cent,  above  par,  in  spite  of  the 
enormous  sums  spent  on  the  reconstruction  of 
the  track. 

The   Union   Pacific   has   done   a   wonderful 
work.     It    has    changed    the    nature    of    the 
country  through  which  it  passes.     Omaha  has 
become  the  third  place  in  the 
United  States  for  packing  meat      What  the 
products.    Fremont  has  sprung      p     *     u 
from  nothingness  into  a  pros-  done. 

perous  and  beautiful  city  of  ten 
thousand  people.  As  the  "  Limited  "  passes 
westwards  it  traverses  what  was  once  prairie 
and  is  now  a  great  agricultural  district,  dotted 
thickly  with  snug  farms,  capacious  barns,  and 
active  windmills.  An  area  that  produced 
nothing  fifty  years  back  now  exports  produce 
worth  half  a  million  dollars,  excluding  live 
stook  and  minerals.  Lexington,  where,  in 
1867,  the  Southern  Cheyenne  Indians  burned 
a  freight  train,  is  now  a  town  of  25,000  people, 
surrounded  by  fertile  irrigated  fields.  Laramie 
is  given  over  to  railroad  shops  and  to  mining. 
From  Granger  branches  off  the  Overland  Route 
to  Portland,  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and  Spokane. 
Dropping  down  through  the  wonders  of  Echo 
Caiion — waterfalls,  frowning  cliffs,  turrets,  and 
domes  of  weather-worn  rock — we  reach  Ogden, 

VOL.  III. 


DRIVING   PILES    OF   RAILWAY   TRESTLE    ACROSS    THE    SOUTHERN    ARM    OF    SAN   PRANCISCO    BAY. 

{Pkoto,  Southern  Pacific  Railway  Com'pany.] 


FIRST    AMERICAN    TRANS-CONTINENTAL    RAILROAD.     147 


CONSTRUCTION    WORK    BETWEEN    SUMxMIT    AND    BLUE    CANON,    CALIFORNIA. 


which  has  become  important  as  the  junction 
for  Salt  Lake  City.  The  increase  of  popula- 
tion in  Utah  has  made  the  wilderness  blossom, 
and  discovered  the  enormous  mineral  wealth 
of  the  hills.  Salt  Lake  City  is  now  probably 
the  greatest  smelting  centre  of  the  world, 
and  the  once-named  "  Great  American  Desert  " 
• — marked  in  maps  of  1850  as  "unexplored 
territory  " — laughs  with  harvests. 

So  into  the  Sierras,  passing  right  and  left 
thriving  mining  centres,  to  Truckee,  where 
the  Government  has  invested  several  million 
dollars  in  irrigation  works,  and 
won  many  thousand  acres  from 
barrenness.  Higher  up  we  enter  the  snow 
region,  and  presently  drop  towards  the  Pacific, 


Conclusion. 


through  marvellous  scenery,  into  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley,  the  land  of  sunshine  and 
orchards,  and  reach  the  capital  town,  where 
the  Central  Pacific  scheme  was  hatched.  From 
Sacramento  we  have  a  choice  of  routes  to  the 
great  gateway  of  the  west,  San  Francisco, 
where  our  journey  ends,  and  with  it  this  brief 
narrative.  The  Overland  Route  is  no  longer 
the  only  highway  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  States.  Since  that  May  day  of  1869 
other  trans-continental  lines  have  been  com- 
pleted. But  none  of  them  equals  in  daring 
and  in  interest  the  first  iron  road,  which 
showed  the  way  to  others,  and  remains  as  a 
monument  to  the  enterprise  and  tenacity  of 
its  promoters. 


THE    WONDERFUL    CURVES    ON    THE    ST.    GOTHARD    RAILWAY    AT    WASSEN,    IN    THE    VALLEY    OP 

THE    REUSS. 

The  line  is  seen  at  three  different  levels. 

(Plioto,  Swiss  Federal  Railways.) 

THE   GREAT   TUNNELS   THROUGH 

THE   ALPS. 


THE  huge  elevated  masses  of  the  Alps 
form  what  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
important  physical  feature  of  the 
European  continent.  In  them  rise  most  of 
the  great  rivers  of  Central  and  Western 
Europe,  Their  opposition  to  the  passage  of 
wind  currents  regulates  in  large  degree  the 
climate  of  the  countries  in  their  immediate 
neighbourhood. 

Not  less  important  are  their  political  effects. 
But  for  the  obstacles  thrown  by  them  in  the 
way  of  movements  of  human  beings,  the  his- 


tory   of    Europe  would   have   been  very  dif- 
ferent.    By  the  Alps,  Italy  is   separated   on 

the  north  from  France,  Switzer-      _. 

'  The  Alps. 

land,  and  Austria.    They  mter- 

pose  an  almost  complete  ring  fence  between 

Switzerland  and  France,  Italy,  Germany,  and 

Austria.     In  short,  the  Alps  are,  and  always 

have  been,  the  dividers  of  European  nations. 

Here  and  there  occur  breaches  in  the  barriers, 

through  which  have  marched  invading  hosts — 

Carthaginians,  Romans,  Goths,  Huns,  French, 

Germans,  Austrians — through  which  has  been 


THE    GREAT    TUNNELS    THROUGH    THE    ALPS. 


149 


maintained  tiie  kindlier  traffic  of  commerce. 
Splendid  roads  were  constructed  over  the 
passes  by  military  engineers — by  the  Romans 
first,  and,  many  centuries  later,  by  the  great 
Napoleon.  Early  in  last  century  regular 
stage-coach  services  were  established,  and, 
except  in  winter,  served  the  needs  of  the 
comparatively  small  travelling  public. 

Presently  came  the  development  of  the  rail- 
way. Tracks  crept  up  from  all  points  of  the 
compass,  but  on  reaching  the  Alpine  slopes 
had  in  most  cases  to  stop 
abruptly.     The    first    line    to 


The  Semmer- 
ing  Railway. 


The  Mont 
Cenis  Tunnel. 


cross  the  Alps  was  the  Sem- 
mering  Railway,  which  in  the  years  1848-54 
was  led  over  the  Semmering  Pass,  to  open 
direct  communication  between  Vienna  and 
Austria's  greatest  seaport,  Trieste.  The  Sem- 
mering Pass  lies  in  one  of  the  Alpine  offshoots. 
At  the  crest  a  tunnel  had  to  be  driven  through 
nearly  a  mile  of  rock  ;  otherwise  the  work  was 
confined  to  bridging,  cutting,  and  filling. 

Soon  after  the  completion  of  this  enterprise 
the  French  began  to  busy  themselves  with  a 
much  more  ambitious  project — that  of  piercing 
the  Col  de  Frejus,  about  18 
miles  south  of  Mont  Cenis,  with 
a  double-track  tunnel,  nearly 
eight  miles  long,  which  should  be  the  last  link 
in  the  Victor  Emmanuel  Railway,  and  bring 
Paris  within  eighteen  hours  of  Turin  by  rail. 
At  that  time  trains  ran  on  the  French  side  to 
Modane,  whence  passengers  and  baggage  had 
to  be  taken  fifty  miles  by  road — lat«r,  by  the 
Fell  surface  railway — over  the  mountains  to 
the  terminus,  at  Susa,  of  the  railway  on  the 
Italian  side. 

An  agreement  was  made  between  the  French 
and  Italian  Governments  whereby  the  latter 
undertook  the  financing  of  the  work,  but  sub- 
let the  driving  of  the  western  half  of  the 
tunnel  to  the  French  for  £760,000,  plus  a 
premium  of  £20,000  for  every  year  less  than 
twenty-five  years,  and  £24,000  for  every  year 
under    fifteen    years    saved    in    construction. 


The  French  Government  agreed  to  pay  a  sub- 
vention of  £800,000  as  their  share. 

Great  public  interest  was  aroused  by  the 
boldness  of  the  scheme.  A  tunnel  of  so  great 
a  length  had  not  been  attem])ted  previously 

in  any  part  of  the  world.     Tli«- 

A  Gig^antic 


difficulties  ahead  could  not  be 


Undertaking. 


The  Mountain 
pierced. 


estimated,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  experience  in  burrowing  under  lofty  moun- 
tain peaks.  As  it  would  be  impossible  to 
sink  air-shafts  along  the  line  of  the  tunnel, 
serious  problems  of  ventilation  had  to  be 
faced.  At  that  period,  moreover,  gunpowder 
was  the  only  blasting  agent  available.  To 
sum  up,  the  ample  time  limit — twenty-five 
years — allowed  by  the  contracts  affords  suffi- 
cient proof  that  the  driving  of  the  Mont  Cenis 
Tunnel  was  regarded  as  a  very  formidable 
task. 

At  first  boring  proceeded  very  slowly  in- 
deed, and  at  the  end  of  five  and  a  half  years 
only  one-fifth  of  the  work  had  been  accom- 
plished. The  introduction  of 
the  Sommeiller  compressed-air 
drill  expedited  matters,  how- 
ever, and  seven  and  a  half  years  more  sufficed 
for  completion.  On  Christmas  Day,  1870,  at 
4.25  p.m.,  drill  No.  45,  working  on  the  Italian 
side,  knocked  a  bore-hole  12  feet  long  through 
the  barrier  of  rock  separating  the  advanced 
galleries  driven  by  the  French  and  Italian 
gangs.  The  information  was  telegraphed  tp 
Turin,  and  contractors  and  engineers  hurried 
up  on  a  special  train.  Meanwhile  a  number 
of  bore-holes  were  made  in  the  rock  curtain 
and  filled  with  blasting  charges.  When  the 
last  were  fired  the  galleries  were  brought  into 
communication  ;  and  at  5. .30  p.m.,  on  Decem- 
ber 26,  M.  Copello,  the  engineer  in  charge  of 
the  works  on  the  French  side,  passed  from 
end  to  end  of  the  tunnel,  entering  at  Modane 
and  coming  out  at  Bardonneche,  the  Italian 
portal.  The  error  in  direction  was  found  to 
be  nil,  the  vertical  error  to  be  one  foot,  and 
the  actual  length  to  be   15  feet  in  excess  of 


THE    GOESCHENEN    (NORTHERN)    ENTRANCE    TO    THE    ST.    GOTHARD    TUNNEL. 
TRAIN   LEAVING    THE    ST.    GOTHARD    TUNNEL    AT    AIROLO. 

{Photos,  Swiss  Federal  Railways.) 


THE  GREAT  TUNNELS  THROUGH  THE  ALPS. 


151 


Details. 


the  calculated  length.  It  need  hardly  be  said 
that  such  results  betokened  extreme  accuracy 
in  the  surveying  operations  preliminary  to 
laying  out  the  tunnel's  centre  lines. 

The  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  is  7  9806  miles  long, 
including  the  two  curved  entry  tunnels,  which 
meet  the  main  tunnel,  7i  miles  long,  some 
distance  in  from  the  portals 
used  for  sighting  purposes. 
At  the  French  end  the  maximum  dimensions 
are :  width,  26  feet  2|  inches  ;  height,  24 
feet  7 J  inches.  At  the  Italian  end  the  width 
is  the  same,  but  the  height  is  about  a  foot 
greater.  The  gradients  from  the  French  and 
Italian  portals  to  the  centre  point  are  1  in 
45|  and  1  in  2,000  respectively.  It  may  be 
added  that  the  Modane  entrance  is  3,945  feet, 
the  Bardonneche  4,379  feet,  above  sea-level  ; 
that  the  greatest  depth  of  rock  immediately 
over  the  tunnel  is  nearly  a  mile  ;  and  that 
the  highest  temperature  recorded  during  the 
work  was  87°  Fahrenheit. 

The  total  cost  was  about  £3,000,000,  or 
£225  per  yard  ;  the  average  progress  made 
per  day  2- 57  yards. 

The  opening  of  the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  revo- 
lutionized travel  from  France  and  England  to 
Italy,  and  transferred  a  great  portion  of  the 
Eastern  mail  and  merchandise  traffic  from 
Marseilles  to  Brindisi  and  Grenoa.  So  great 
were  the  advantages  gained,   that  the   Swiss 


The 

St.  Gothard 

Project. 


determined  to  effect  railway  access  to  Italy 
over  or  through  the  great  barrier  of  the 
Lepontine  Alps. 

After  mature  deli l)orui ion  it  was  decided  to 
take  a  railway  from  Altdorf,  at  the  south- 
eastern end  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  up  the 
valley  of  the  Reuss  to  Goesch- 
enen,  to  tunnel  from  that 
point  under  the  St.  Gothard  to 
Airolo,  and  so  gam  the  head 
of  the  valley  of  the  Ticino,  through  which  the 
rails  would  be  led  down  to  Biasca,  on  the  way 
to  Lugano,  Como,  and  Milan. 

As  the  scheme  was  of  importance  to  Italy 
and  to  Germany,  these  countries  contributed 
45,000,000  and  20,000,000  francs  respectively 
towards  defraying  the  cost.  Switzerland  came 
in  equally  with  Germany  ;  and  as  soon  as 
the  agreement  was  signed,  the  public  sub- 
scribed a  further  115,000,000  francs  within 
twenty-four  hours.  M.  Louis  Favre  of  Greneva, 
who  undertook  the  contract,  died  of  apoplexy 
in  the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel  before  it  was  com- 
pleted. 

The  summit  tunnel  was  to  be  9 J  miles  long. 
This  by  no  means  represented  the  sum  of 
tunnelling  to  be  done,  as  in  the  56  miles 
between  Erstfeld  in  Switzerland  and  Biasca 
there  are  over  8  miles  of  additional  subsidiary 
tunnels,  including  the  three  corkscrew  tunnels 
on   the  north  and   the  four  on   the  south  of 


ONE    OF   THE    STEAM    LOCOMOTIVES    USED    ON   THE    ST.    GOTHARD    RAILWAY. 


152 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


To  Calais 


ToBerIm       GERMANY 


"to  Paris 


TolnnshrucH 


AUSTRIA 


FRANCE 


Jo  Bologna 


To  Bologna 


Gradients. 


SKETCH    MAP    SHOWING    THE    POSITIONS    OF    THE    CHIEF    ALPINE 
TUNNELS    AND    THE    ROUTES    OPENED    UP    BY    THEM. 


the  summit.  From  first  to  last  the  physical 
conditions  were  most  difficult,  the  valleys  being 
narrow  and  precipitous,  and  the  gradients 
severe.  The  approaches  are,  in  fact,  as  won- 
derful as  the  main  tunnel  itself. 

The  exact  length  of  the  tunnel  is  16,295 
yards.  Its  section  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Mont  Cenis.  From  the  northern  portal  the 
rails  run  for  8, 127' 8  yards  up 
an  incline  of  1  in  172,  to  a 
level  stretch  180  yards  long  at  the  centre; 
which  passed,  they  encounter  a  decline,  7,970*3 
yards  long,  of  1  in  1,000  to  Airolo,  at  the 
southern  entrance. 

Work  on  the  tunnel  began  on  September  13, 
1872,  at  the  southern  end,  and  on  October  24 
at  the  northern  end.  The  system  adopted 
was  to  run  top  galleries  in 
ad  ance  and  break  them  out 
laterally  and  downwards  to 
the  full  section  of  the  tunnel. 
The  Sommeiller  air-drills  used  on  the  Mont 
Cenis  Tunnel  were  replaced  by  the  more 
efficient  Ferroux  drills,  making  two  hundred 


Improved 
Drills  and 
Explosives. 


strokes  per  minute.  Moreover, 
dynamite  was  substituted  for 
gunpowder  in  blasting.  These 
improvements,  added  to  the 
experience  gained  from  the 
earlier  tunnel,  rendered  prog- 
ress much  faster  than  at  Mont 
Cenis  —  the  daily  advance 
a  eraging  6" 01  yards — and  re- 
duced the  cost  to  £142,  13s. 
per  yard.  Bad  ventilation 
caused  so  much  sickness 
among  the  men  that  air  loco- 
motives were  introduced  to 
remove  d&)ris  from  the  work- 
ing face. 

On  New- Year's  Day,  1882, 
the  tunnel  was  completed,  and 
shortly  afterwards  Switzerland 
and  Germany  possessed  easy 
communication  with  Genoa 
and  other  Italian  ports.  The  time  occupied 
in  driving  the  tunnel  had  been 
88  months,  as  compared  with 
the  157  months  of  the  Mont  Cenis,  though 
the  St.  Gothard  was  the  longer  of  the  two 
tunnels  by  well  over  a  mile.  The  cost  of 
this  tunnel  was  rather  more  than  £2,300,000 
sterling. 

While  the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel  was  still  in 
progress,  the  Austrian  Government  had  put 
in  hand  a  project  for  giving  Vienna  rail  com- 
munication with  Paris  through  Switzerland, 
as  an  alternative  to  the  partly  German  route 
vid  Salzburg,  Munich,  Stuttgart,  and  Strass- 
burg,  by  prolonging  the  Une  to  Innsbruck 
through  Landeck  to  Feldkirch,  near  the  Swiss 
frontier. 

Westwards  of  Landeck  the  Alps  assert 
themselves,  and  the  line  has  to  climb  up 
gradients  of  about  2  per  cent, 
and  round  numerous  sharp 
curves.  At  St.  Anton  it  en- 
ters a  summit  tunnel,  6|  miles  long,  running 
due  east  and  west.    For  2|  miles  the  gradient 


Success. 


The  Arlberg: 
Tunnel. 


THE    GREAT    TUNNELS    11TR0UGH    THK    ALPS. 


L53 


rises  1  in  500,  and  for  tlie  remaining  I 
miles  to  Langen  there  is  a  decline  of  1 
in  66. 

Work  was  begun  on  November  13,  1880. 
The  working  parties  at  the  east  end  encoun- 
tered hard  but  waterless  rock  ;  whereas  at  the 
west  end  the  material  to  be  pierced  was 
micaceous  and  fissured,  and  water  caused  de- 
lays which  about  counterbalanced  the  greater 
ease  of  drilling.  Instead  of  the  top  heading 
method  used  at  the  St.  Gothard,  the  engineers 
employed  a  bottom  heading  run  in  advance 
at  rail-level.  From  this,  vertical  shafts,  or 
"  break-ups,"  were  made  every  79  feet  in  the 
eastern,  and  every  216  feet  in  the  western 
portion  to  the  level  of  the  crown  of  the  arch, 
and  top  headings  then  driven  both  ways 
above  and  parallel  to  the  bottom  heading. 
This  system  made  it  possible  to  have  1,500 
metres  of  excavation  in  hand  at  once.  The 
tunnel  was  enlarged  to  full  size  and  lined  in 
lengths  of  20  to  26  feet,  the  two  processes 
requiring  on  the  average  twenty  and  fourteen 
days  respectively.  In  section  the  tunnel  was 
26|  feet  wide  (maximum),  and  18^  feet  high 
above  the  sleepers  over  a  width  of  11 J  feet. 
The  lining  varied  in  thickness  from  1|  to 
4  feet. 

It  was  anticipated  that  the  driving  would 
take  five  full  years,  and  the  contract  was 
based  on  this  term,  a  premium  of  £80  a  day 
being  allowed  for  every  day 
less  than  that  period  occu- 
pied. But  owing  to  the 
quicker  system  of  excavation  used  and  to  the 
adoption  of  the  new  Brandt  drill,  the  headings 
met  as  early  as  November  13,  1883 — the 
anniversary  of  the  start — and  the  tunnel  was 
ready  for  traffic  ten  months  later.  The  for- 
tunate contractor  therefore  earned  a  premium 
of  many  thousands  of  pounds. 

To  show  the  advance  in  the  art  of  tunnel- 
ling as  exemplified  by  the  three  big  enterprises 
noticed  so  far,  the  following  comparative  table 
is  of  interest  : — 


Quick 
Progress. 


'rumu'l. 

7^  milcH 
9^  miles 
GJ  miles 

Time  in 
months*. 

Average 
advance 
jjcr  day. 

CJoet 
per  yard. 

Mont  Cenis 
St.  Gothanl 
Arlberg  .     . 

157 

88 
43 

2-57  yards 
601  yard.H 
9-07  yards* 

£215    6    0  1 
£142  13    0 
£107  13    0 

The  Brandt  drill,  which  was  used  in  the 
Swiss  half  of  the  Arlberg  Tunnel,  and,  years 
afterwards,  exclusively  for  the  Simplon  Tun- 
nel, is  worthy  of  more  than 
passing  mention.  It  differs 
radically  from  the  percussive 
drills  used  previously  in  being  driven  by  w^ater 
instead  of  air,  and  in  boring,  not  pecking,  its 
way  into  the  rock.     The  drill  stem  is  hollow. 


The  Brandt 
Drill. 


Counterweight 


THE    BRANDT    ROCK    DRILL,    WHICH    HAS    DONE    SO 
MUCH   TO    FACILITATE    TUNNEL    DRIVING. 

A,  rack  bar  on  which  the  drills  are  mounted,  and  which  is 
jammed  across  the  heading  by  hydraulic  rams. 

as  is  also  the  boring  bit.  The  last  is  furnished 
with  three  or  four  teeth,  splayed  outwards 
slightly,  so  as  to  make  a  hole  somewhat 
larger  than  the  stem.  Two  small  cylinders, 
driven  by  high-pressure  water,  rotate  the  drill 
mandrel  holding  the  drill  through  worm 
gearing,  five  to  ten  times  a  minute,  and  ex- 
haust the  water  through  a  pipe  leading  down 
the  hollow  centre  of  the  drill.  This  system 
keeps  the  drill  cool,  and  washes  out  the  small 
detritus  from  the  face  as  fast  as  it  is  de- 
tached. The  teeth  are  worn  down  quickly 
by  hard  rock,  but  re-forming,  sharpening,  and 
re-tempering  them  is  easy  work  for  a  skilled 
smith.  The  drill  is  pressed  against  the  face 
by  a  hydraulic  ram,  which  gets  a  purchase  on 
a  beam  wedged  across  the  heading.     The  ram 


154 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


has  a  piston  area  of  15|  square  inches  ;  and 
as  the  water  pressure  is  about  1,500  lbs.  to 
the  square  inch,  the  total  ram  thrust  is  over 
ten  tons.  To  sink  a  hole  39  inches  deep  takes 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  minutes.  Engineers 
who  have  used  it  maintain  that  the  Brandt 


Ventilation. 


THEODOLITE    STATION   ON    MONT   LEONE,  7,000  FEET 
ABOVE    THE    LINE    OF    THE    SIMPLON    TUNNEL. 

{Photo,  by  courtesy  of  Mr.  Francis  Fez.) 

drill  has   done  more  than  anything  else  for 
the  progress  of  rock  tunnelling. 

The  ventilation  in  the  workings  of  the  Arl- 
berg  Tunnel  was  good — far  better  than  in  those 
of  the  St.  Gothard  and  Mont  Cenis.  Large 
pipes  were  brought  up  to  the 
working  faces,  and  from  them 
was  squirted  water  in  fine  jets  after  a  blast 
explosion  to  lay  the  dust  and  absorb  the 
fumes  of  the  explosive.  Also,  fresh  air  was 
pumped  by  electrically  driven  pumps  through 
other  pipes  and  delivered  where  needed. 
Steam  locomotives  were  used  for  haulage,  but 
so  constructed  that  the  fires  could  be  banked 
down  and  the  smoke  confined  while  an  engine 
was  inside  the  tunnel. 

From  the  Arlberg  we  pass  to  the  longest, 
and  in  many  ways  the  most  interesting,  tun- 
nel yet  constructed — the  great 
The  Simplon    jgi.niile  bore  under  the  Sim- 
Pass.  ,       ^  ^.  ,       . 

plon  Pass.     Since  the  time  oi 

the  Romans,  and  probably  since  a  date  much 
earlier  than  that  of  the  founding  of  Rome,  the 


Simplon  Pass  has  been  one  of  the  chief  routes 
over  the  Alps.  The  present  excellent  but 
little  used  roadway  was  completed,  by  order 
of  Napoleon,  in  1805.  It  is  37^  miles  long, 
and  cost  over  £300,000  to  construct. 

During  the  latter  half  of  last  century  many 
schemes  were  mooted  for  taking  a  railway 
through  the  pass.  Of  these,  all  but  two  in- 
cluded a  summit  tunnel.     In 

1879  the  Jura-Simplon  Railway    ^''^ifcts  for 
^  1       ^  Tunnel. 

was  brought  from  the  east  end 

of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  up  the  Rhone  Valley 
to  Brieg,  at  the  north  end  of  the  pass,  where 
it  had  to  stop  ;  and  at  about  the  same  time 
the  Italians  had  pushed  a  track  up  to  Lake 
Maggiore.  In  1881  the  Jura-Simplon  Com- 
pany proposed  piercing  the  mountains  between 
Brieg  and  Iselle,  in  the  narrow  valley  of  the 
Diveria  on  the  Italian  side.  A  tunnel  at  this 
point  would  bring  north-western  France  nearer 


SIGNAL    STATION    ON    MONT    LEONE,    CAPPED    WITH 
A    CONE    OF   ZINC. 
Many  of  these  stations  were  built  to  assist  the  trigono- 
metrical  survey   made   to   establish  the  centre  line  of  the 

Simplon  Tunnel. 

{Photo,  by  courtesy  of  Mr.  Francis  Fox.) 

to  Italy,  cutting  off  between  Calais  and  Milan 
no  less  than  80  and  95  miles  as  compared  with 
the  St.  Gothard  and  Mont  Cenis  routes  re- 
spectively. To  secure  fast  and  cheap  traffic 
the  tunnel  must  be  at  low  level,  to  permit 
easy  grades  on  the  approaches,  and  therefore 
be  of  great  length. 


THE    GREAT    TUNNELS    THROUGH    THE*  ALPS. 


155 


By  1890  the  scheme  had  advanced  so  far 

that  Messrs.  Sulzer,  Brandt,  and  Brandau,  as 

contractors,  handed  to  the  company  a  definite 

scheme    for    carrying    through 
A  Convention    ^j^^   ^^^^      r^j^j^    ^^^^^^   ^^^ 

examined  and  approved  by  a 
commission  of  independent  experts,  and  on 
November  25,  1895,  a  convention  was  signed 
between  the  company  and  the  ItaHan  Gov- 
ernment, and 
ratified  a  few 
days  later 
by  the  Swiss 
Government. 
Out  of  the 
estimated 
£3,040,000 
needed  for 
the  scheme, 
over  £810,000 
was  s  u  b- 
scribed  freely 
by  local  bod- 
ies in  the 
countries  prin- 
cipally con- 
cerned. 

The  plans 
finally  ac- 
cepted specified,  in  the  place  of  the  usual 
single  large  tunnel,  two  single-track  tunnels 
with  their  axes  55' 8  feet  apart, 
and  connected  by  cross-pas- 
sages every  200  metres.  In  the  first  instance 
only  one  tunnel  would  be  made  full  size,  but 
the  headings  for  both  were  to  be  driven  simul- 
taneously, in  order  to  facilitate  ventilation 
and  transport.  This  double-barrelled  system, 
here  used  for  the  first  time,  is  advantageous 
in  that  the  derailment  of  a  train  on  one  track 
cannot  endanger  the  other  track,  that  either 
tunnel  can  be  repaired  without  interfering 
with  the  other,  and  that  two  small  tunnels  are 
much  less  affected  by  pressure  than  a  single 
one   of  equal   total   section.     Events   showed 


A    WORKING    ENTRANCE    TO    THE    SIMPLON    TUNNEL. 


Twin  Tunnels. 


that,  had  the  engineers  chosen  the  single 
largo  bore,  the  Siraplon  Tunnel  could  never 
have  reached  completion. 

The  gradients  adopted  were  1  in  500  on  the 
Swiss,  and  1  in  143  on  the  Italian  side,  these 
to  be  connected  in  the  middle  of  the  tunnel 
by  a  vertical  curve  of  10,000  metres  radius 
and  80  metres  long.. 

Under   the   contract,    signed   on   April    15, 

1898,  the  first 
tunnel  was  to 
be  ready  for 
traffic  within 
five  years  and 
nine  months 
from  date, 
and  the  sec- 
ond four  years 
later.  Subse- 
quently the 
period  was  ex- 
tended by  one 
year.  Care  for 
the  workmen 
was  shown  in 
clauses  speci- 
fying that  the 
w^orking  faces 
should  be  kept 
moderately  cool  and  be  well  ventilated,  and 
that  cheap  and  good  lodging  and  food  should 
be  provided.  These  conditions  were  observed 
most  loyally  by  the  contractors. 

Before  boring  operations  began — on  August 
1,  1898 — a  most  thorough  survey  of  the  pass 
and  the  surrounding  peaks  had  been  made, 
to  determine  the  direction  of 
the  tunnel.  At  each  end  a 
sighting-point  was  fixed  from  which  to  pro- 
ject the  centre-line  through  the  tunnel.  As 
the  working  advanced,  sighting  stations  were 
added  at  points  in  the  tunnel  itself,  at  inter- 
vals of  a  mile  or  two  miles,  to  carry  the  line 
forward.  This  part  of  the  work  was  so 
accurate  that  the  error  in  direction  amounted 


156 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Tunnelling. 


AN   INROAD    OF    WATER,    SIMPLON    TUNNEL    WORKS. 

to  but  8  inches  in  the  12 J-  miles,  and  that  of 
level  to  but  3|  inches.  The  calculated  length 
of  the  tunnel  was  within  half  an  inch  of  the 
actual  length ! 

The  tunnelling  method  adopted  was  to 
drive  the  two  parallel  tunnel  headings  simul- 
taneously and  "  break  up  "  from  heading 
No.  1  to  roof -level,  drive  top 
headings  both  ways,  and  grad- 
ually excavate  to  full  size,*  and  timber  the 
works  in  readiness  for  the  masons  following 
behind.  The  cross-passages  between  the  two 
tunnels  were  closed,  with  the  exception  of  that 
nearest  the  working  face,  so  that  the  air 
forced  by  powerful  centrifugal  fans  up  head- 
ing No.  1  should  return  by  heading  No.  2  at 

*  After  penetrating  some  distance,  the  contractors  aban- 
doned the  top  gallery  system,  and  opened  out  the  tunnel 
from  the  bottom  heading.     This  gave  better  ventilation. 


the  inmost  point  possible.  To  ensure,  further, 
that  the  workmen  should  have  plenty  of  fresh 
air  to  breathe,  large  tubes,  15  inches  in  diam- 
eter, were  taken  to  the  faces,  and  through 
them  were  directed  fine  jets  of  high-pressure 
w^ater,  which  induced  a  powerful  draught  of 
air  cooled  by  contact  with  the  water.  Also, 
water  sprays  were  fixed  at  various  points  to 
distribute  cold  water  across  the  passages  and 
reduce  the  temperature  of  the  rock. 

A  narrow-gauge  railway  led  from  the  portals 
up  each  heading,  to  transport  men,  materials, 
and  d^ris.  The  cycle  of  operations  to  be 
performed  during  every  "  lift," 
or  advance,  of  the  drills  are 
normally  as  follows  :  —  The 
drilling  machine,  carrying  three  drills,  is 
brought  up  to  the  face,  fixed  tightly  by  means 
of  a  hydraulic  ram  pressing  on  the  sides  of 


Series  of 
Operations. 


THE  GREAT  TUNNELS  THROUGH  THE  ALPa    157 


timbeIring    of    ial.se    temporary    arches    for    supporting    the 
permanent  lining  at  difficult  places  in  the  simplon  tunnel. 


the  heading, 
and  set  to 
work  to  bore 
from  ten  to 
twelve  holes 
for  the  blast- 
ing charges. 
Two  men  at- 
tend to  each 
drill,  one  reg- 
ulating the 
motor,  the 
other  direct- 
ing the  tool 
and  replacing 
it  when  worn. 
In  about  a 
couple  of 
hours  the  holes  have  been  driven  to  full 
depth.  They  are  cleared  out  carefully,  and 
the  dynamite  cartridges,  fuses,  and  detonators 
are  inserted.  Meanwhile,  the  drills  and  all 
other  objects  liable  to  be  damaged  by  flying 
fragments  of  rock  have  been  removed  outside 
the  danger  zone,  and  the  bottom  of  the 
heading  has  been  covered  with  a  movable 
steel  flooring  to  facilitate  the  shovelling  up  of 
the  dSris.  Immediately  after  the  explosion 
the  face  is  deluged  by  jets  of  water  to  clear 
the  air.  A  truck  having  been  brought  up,  the 
men,  armed  with  pick  and  shovel,  clear  away 
the  broken  rock,  and  examine  the  sides  and 
roof  carefully,  detaching  any  loose  fragments. 

The  time  occupied  by  an  advance — drilling, 
blasting,  and  clearing — occupied  about  five 
hours,  allowing  a  daily  advance  of  18  feet. 
For  haulage  purposes,  locomotives,  driven  by 
air  compressed  to  over  1,000  lbs.  to  the  square 
inch,  were  used  in  the  headings.  As  the  latter 
advanced  it  became  necessary  to  make  stations 
in  the  tunnel  at  which  the  supply  of  com- 
pressed air  could  be  replenished. 

The  great  average  depth  below  the  surface 
at  which  the  tunnel  was  to  be  driven — the 
extreme  being  7,000  feet  under  Mount  Leone — 


Difficulties 
encountered. 


promised  very 
high  tempera- 
tures and 
dangers  from 
excessive 
pressure.  The 
strata  encoun- 
tered were  of 
gneiss,  mica 
schist,  and 
limestone.  At 
many  points 
water  was 
struck,  and 
squeezes,  due 
to  the  hori- 
zontal direc- 
tion of  the 
strata,  had  to  be  counteracted  by  extra  thick 
lining.  The  greatest  troubles  fell  to  the  lot 
of  the  Italian  workmen.  At 
a  distance  of  4,400  odd  kilo- 
metres (2*728  miles)  from  the 
Iselle  entrance,  the  advanced  gallery  entered, 
in  November  1901,  very  rotten  ground,  out 
of  which  cold  water  poured  in  enormous 
quantities  at  very  high  pressure,  and  drove 
back  the  miners.  Simultaneously,  the  rock 
began  to  crush  in  the  timbering.  As  soon  as 
the  flow  had  diminished  sufficiently  the  miners 
proceeded  to  excavate  by  hand,  and  insert 
frames  built  of  stout  timber  balks  to  protect 
the  wagon  way.  These  frames  were,  however, 
crushed  like  matchwood  by  the  enormous 
pressure,  and  the  heading  closed.  The  engi- 
neers at  once  ordered  frames  of  rolled  steel 
beams  having  webs  16  inches  deep  and  flanges 
6  inches  wide,  to  each  side  of  which  were 
bolted  massive  pitch  pine  balks  20  inches 
square.  Even  these  could  not  resist  the 
squeeze,  and  were  seriously  deformed,  but 
by  filling  the  spaces  between  the  frames  with 
quick-setting  cement  a  secure  path  was  formed 
for  the  advance  beyond. 

Though    this    troublesome    portion    had    a 


158 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


REMOVING    FALSE    ARCHES,    SIMrLO.N    XLXNKL. 


Costly  Work. 


length  of  but 
40  metres,  six 
months  were 
consumed  in 
driving  the 
heading,  and 
another  year 
in  getting  in 
the  lining. 
The  cost 
came  out  at 
£1,000  for 
every  yard 
run.  This, 
however,  is 
not  surpris- 
ing, in  view 
of  the  fact 
that  the  tun- 
nel had  to  be  enlarged  laboriously  by  hand  to 
full  section,  and  the  space  outside  the  frames 
then  filled  with  temporary 
masonry,  to  give  support  foi 
the  timbering  of  the  space  subsequently 
excavated  for  the  permanent  lining,  which 
was  five  feet  thick.  This  stage  of  the  work, 
besides  causing  much  serious  delay,  taxed 
the  men  severely.  The  stream  of  water 
mingling  with  the  decomposed  schist  formed 
a  slush  in  which  the  men  were  often  sunk 
waist  deep.  To  their  credit  be  it  said  that 
such  discomfort  did  not  slacken  their  deter- 
mination to  overcome  the  immense  difficulties 
with  which  they  had  to  contend. 

Meanwhile,    in    the    Swiss    portion    of    the 

tunnel  excellent  progress  had  been  made,  and 

the  centre  point  was  reached  several  months 

ahead   of   time.     In   order   to 

Hot  Springs     ^^^^^    f^^    advantage    of    this, 
struck  on  the   ^i       ,       ,.  .        , 

S    iss  Side headmgs    were   continued 

on  a  slightly  rising  gradient 
to  the  roof-level  of  the  tunnel  a  short  way 
down  the  Italian  decline.  Then  the  headings 
were  given  a  downward  slope  of  1  in  40. 
Unfortunately,  the  rocks  at  this  point  were 


badly  fis- 
sured, and 
discharged  a 
quantity  of 
hot  water  at 
such  pressure 
as  to  detach 
and  fling 
pieces  of  rock 
large  enough 
to  inflict  seri- 
ous injury  on 
the  miners. 
The  heat  of 
the  workings 
became  al- 
most unbear- 
able, although 
the  rocks  were 


deluged  with  cold  water  piped  up  the  tunnel. 
Eventually  a  point  was  reached  at  which, 
owing  to  the  depth  of  water  accumulated,  it 
became  necessary  to  turn  the  headings  up- 
wards once  more,  on  the  very  gentle  gradient 
of  1  in  1,000.  As  a  precaution  iron  doors 
were   placed   in   both   headings   at   the  point 


SWISS 

i     m     666 


SKETCH  SHOWING  HOW  HEADINGS  WERE  DRIVEN 
AT  THE  POINT  OP  MEETING  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OP 
THE    STMPLON    TUNNEL. 

The  Italian  party  tapped  the  water  accumulated  in  the 
southernmost  Swiss  heading  on  24th  February  1905,  six  and  a 
half  years  after  boring  commenced  at  the  entrances. 

where  the  up-grade  began,  to  be  closed  in 
case  of  an  emergency.  This  proved  to  be  a 
very  wise  step,  for  shortly  afterwards  an  un- 
usually hot  spring  was  tapped,  and,  the  cold 
water  supply  breaking  down,  the  miners  had 
to  retire,  making  the  doors  fast  behind  them. 
The  situation  now  looked  very  serious  in- 


THE    GREAT    TUNNELS    THROUGH    THE    ALPS. 


159 


BRANDT    DRILL    AT    WORK. 


deed.  It  was  freely  asserted  that  the  tunnel 
could  not  be  finished.  For  the  present  all 
hopes  were  centred  on  the 
workers  advancing  slowly  from 


And  on  the 
Italian  Side. 


the  Italian  side.  They  too 
struck  a  hot  spring  in  gallery  No.  1,  which 
soon  became  untenantable.  But  gallery  No.  2 
fortunately  ran  through  sound  rock,  and  was 
pushed  forwards  until  a  cross-cut  could  be 
made  to  the  line  of  No.  1,  and  that  gallery 
be  driven  in  both  directions.  Thus  the  hot 
spring  was  taken  in  the  rear,  and  gallery 
No.  1  opened  up. 

The  last  serious  obstacle  had  now  been  over- 
come.    One  Sunday  morning  the  engineers  in 

the  northern  part  of  the  tunnel 

The  Headings   ^^^^^^  ^^le  drills  of  the  Italian 

meet.  ,  -r^       ,  . , ,,        p 

advance.      By  the   middle   of 

February  1905  only  a  few  j'^ards  remained  to 
be  pierced  ;  and  on  the  24:th,  at   6  a.m.,  the 


last  blast  was  fired,  releasing  the  hot  water 
ponded  up  in  the  abandoned  Swiss  heading. 
The  Italians  had  to  retire  with  a  haste  which 
precluded  the  mutual  congratulations  usual 
on  such  an  occasion. 

The  last  245  metres  of  gallery  had,  on 
account  of  the  hot  springs,  taken  nearly  six 
months  to  drive.  But  when  through  com- 
munication    had     once     been 


established,  there  w^as  no  more 


The  First 


Train  passes 
through. 


delay.  On  January  25,  1906, 
the  first  train  passed  through 
the  tunnel.  Three  months  later  the  King  of 
Italy  travelled  into  Switzerland  by  the  new 
route,  and  the  President  of  the  Swiss  Republic 
returned  with  him  on  to  Italian  soil.  One  of 
the  world's  greatest  engineering  enterprises 
was  concluded,  and,  by  a  curious  coincidence, 
just  a  hundred  years  after  the  opening  of  the 
Simplon  road,  which  also  had  been  a  wonder 


160 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


of  its  time.  The  driving  of  a  long  tunnel  is, 
even  under  most  favourable  conditions,  ardu- 
ous work.  Where  it  has  to  be  prosecuted  in  the 
face  of  difficulties  such  as  those  met  in  the 
Simplon,  the  humblest  workman  becomes  an 
unsung  hero, 
and  his  chiefs 
the  objects  of 
general  and 
well  -  deserved 
admiration. 

When  growth 
of  traffic  justi- 
fies     the      ex- 
pense,    gallery 
No.    2    will    be 
enlarged  to  full 
section    for     a 
double      track, 
which  at   pres- 
ent exists  only 
for    500    yards 
in  the  mid-tun- 
nel lay-bye,  at 
which        trains 
can    pass     one 
another.  Mean- 
while, it  is  use- 
ful in  assisting 
ventilation, 
about       which 
something  may 
be  added.    The 
two  portals,  at 
Iselle  and  Brieg, 
are   closed,  ex- 
cept    when     a 
train  is  due,  by 
thick  canvas  curtains  and  screens,  sliding  on 
an  iron  framework  surrounding  the  entrance. 

Ventilation.    ^^  *^^  ^"^^  ^^^  *^^  powerful 

centrifugal    10-foot  fans  drive 

air  into  the  tunnel,  from  which  it  is  exhausted 

by    similar   fans   at   the   southern   end.     The 

curtains  are  raised  by  electricity  or  by  hand. 


For  taking  trains  through  the  tunnel, 
powerful  electric  locomotives,  which  pick  up 
current  from  duplicate  con- 
ductors attached  to  the  arch 
crown,  are  used.     The  locomo- 


Electric 
Locomotives- 


ISELLE    PORTAL    TO    THE    SIMPLON    TUNNEL. 

At  present  the  right-hand  entrance  only  is  used  for  through  traffic. 

(Photo,  Messrs.  A.  G.  Brown,  Boveri,  and  Company.) 


tives  have  a 
weight  of  62 
tons,  and  de- 
velop a  maxi- 
rauijj,  of  2,300 
horse-  power. 
With  a  train  of 
300  tons  they 
traverse  the 
tunnel  in  eight- 
een minutes,  at 
an  average 
speed  of  42 
miles  per  hour. 
The  cost  of 
the  tunnel 
was  about 
£3,200,000,  or 
£148  per  yard 
run.  The  work 
occupied  2,392 
days,  on  each 
of  which  an 
average  ad- 
vance over  the 
whole  period  of 
13-69  feet  was 
made  at  each 
face.  On  days 
when  drilling 
machines  were 
actually  in  op- 
eration,     the 


average  was  17*45  feet  at  each  end,  or  34*90 
feet  in  all.  This  exceeded  considerably  the 
rate  of  progress  in  the  Arlberg  Tunnel.  At 
the  date  of  the  meeting  of  the  galleries, 
3,740,000  holes  had  been  drilled  by  hand  and 
machine,  1,496  tons  of  dynamite  exploded, 
and    1,229,500    cubic    yards    of    rock    oxca- 


TRAIN   LE;aVING    THE   SIMPLON   TUNNEL   AT   THE   BRIEG   PORTAL.        (Photo,  Locomotive  Publishing  Company.) 

ONE    OF    THE    ELECTRIC    LOCOMOTIVES    USED    FOR    HAULING    TRAINS    THROUGH    THE    SIMPLON    TUNNEL. 

WEIGHT,    62    TONS  ;    MAXIMUM    HORSE-POWER,    2,300. 

(Photo,  Messrs.  A.  O.  Brown,  Boveri,  and  Company.) 
11  VOL.  IIL 


(1,40S) 


162 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


vated.*     The  highest  point  above  sea-level  in 

the  Simplon  Tunnel  is  2,313  feet,  as  compared 

with  the  4,299  feet  of  the  Arlberg,  the  3,786 

feet  of  the  St.  Gothard,  and  the  4,245  feet  of 

the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel.     Thanks  to  this  very 

moderate    elevation,   and  to    the    absence    of 

severe    curves    on    the    approaches,    the    run 

through  the  Alps  is  made  at  so  good  a  speed 

that  Milan  has  been  brought  within  25 1  hours 

of  London. 

In  connection  with  the  new  Simplon  route 

another  great  project,  the  Loetschberg,  is  in 

hand.     From  Brieg  a  line  will  run  parallel  to 

the   old  railway   to   Lausanne 
The  Loetsch-  ^^^  ^^  ^^j^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^_ 

berg  Tunnel.  -,  .  j  ^i, 

wards,      plunge      under      the 

Loetschberg  through  an  8i-mile  tunnel,  and 
find  its  way  down  the  Kander  Valley  to 
Frutigen,  which  already  has  railway  com- 
munication through  Thun  and  Berne  with 
Germany  and  Northern  France.  It  will  there- 
fore be  a  rival  to  both  the  Lausanne  and  the 
St.  Gothard  routes. 

The  tunnel,  which  has  a  maximum  height 
above  sea-level  of  4,084  feet,  was  begun  in 
October  1906,  and,  to  fulfil  the  contract,  must 
be  completed  by  September  1911.  It  will 
accommodate  two  tracks.  The  approaches 
will  include  some  very  stiff  gradients,  espe- 
cially on  the  Frutigen  side,  where  there  is 
a  9J-mile  stretch  of  2' 7  per  cent.,  and  to 
obtain  this  much  tunnelling  and  looping  is 
required.     The  alternative  of  a  longer,  lower 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  clxviii. 


level  tunnel  was  given  due  consideration,  but 
abandoned  on  account  of  the  decision  to  use 
electric  haulage,  which  is  more  economical 
than  steam  on  steep  grades.  It  is  anticipated 
that  the  extra  power  needed  will  not  cost  as 
much  as  the  interest  on  the  extra  capital  re- 
quired for  a  low -level  tunnel. 

Before  closing  this  article  we  must  refer  to 
the  tunnel  through  the  High  Tauern  Alps,  in 
the  Austrian  Tjnrol.-  The  completion  of  this 
tunnel  in  January  1909,  and 
of   the   railway    between    Bad 


The  Tauern 
Tunnel. 


Gastein  and  Spittal  on  the 
Drave,  has  opened  a  route  of  international 
importance  between  Munich  and  Trieste,  via 
Salzburg,  Gastein,  and  Villach,  and  has  short- 
ened the  journey  from  Salzburg  to  Trieste  by 
154  miles.  The  whole  of  the  new  track  is 
remarkable  for  its  engineering  features,  which 
include  many  viaducts  and  a  number  of  tun- 
nels, among  which  the  Tauern  is  the  most 
notable.  This  has  a  length  of  5 J  miles,  and 
was  driven  through  a  mountain  composed  of 
felspar,  gneiss,  quartz,  and  detonating  shale. 
The  last  gets  its  name  from  its  breaking  off 
at  the  face  with  loud  explosions  when  exposed 
to  air.  The  hardness  of  some  of  the  rocks, 
inroads  of  water,  and  the  peculiar  behaviour 
of  the  shale  caused  much  trouble  and  delay  ; 
but  all  difficulties  were  overcome  by  the 
perseverance  characteristic  of  the  engineer, 
and  the  galleries  met  on  July  12,  1907.  The 
error  in  direction  and  level  was  extremely 
small. 


Note. — For  the  photographs  of  operations  inside  the  Simplon  Tunnel  we  are  indebted  to 

Mr.  Francis  Fox,   M.Inst.C.E.,  and  for  help  in  their  reproduction  to 

Mr.    W.  L.  Law  and  Mr.    W.   T.  Perkins. 


HYDRAULIC    SUCTION    DREDGE,    SHOWl 


TRANSPORTATION    CANALS    OF   THE 

UNITED   STATES. 


BY    I.    M.    PEACOCK. 


R 


The  Value 

of  Inland 

Waterways. 


|IVERS  are  ungovernable  things,  espe- 
cially in  hilly  countries.  Canals 
are  quiet  and  very  manageable." 
So  said  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  at  this  late 
date  the  American  people 
agree.  The  question  of  inland 
waterways  in  the  United  States 
is  again  coming  to  the  fore. 
This  highly  important  factor  in  the  inter- 
state and  international  commercial  growth  of 
a  country  has  suffered  from  alternate  fits  of 
interest  and  absolute  neglect.  The  question 
of  transportation  by  means  of  inland  water- 
ways— canals,  natural  and  artificial — must  now 
be  definitely  taken  up  by  the  National  Govern- 
ment, if  the  country  is  to  keep  the  pace  set 


by  the  intense  development  of  the  farms, 
forests,  mills,  and  mines. 

At  the  present  moment  there  are  2,120  miles 
of  operated  transportation  canals  in  the  United 
States.  The  majority  of  these  canals  are 
owned  and  worked  by  various  States  or 
Corporations,  but  there  is  only  one  state 
canal  of  great  importance — the  Erie  Canal, 
which  the  people  of  the  State  of  New  York 
are  improving  and  modernizing  at  a  cost  of 
§20,000,000.  Most  other  canals  are  under 
private  control,  and  will  continue  to  be  of  no 
value  until  individual  state  interest  grows 
strong  under  the  impetus  of  national  interest. 

A  comparison  of  the  inland  waterway  traffic 
of  the  United  States  with  that,  of  her  keen  in- 


164 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Railroads  v. 
Canals. 


dustrial  and  commercial  rivals — England,  Ger- 
many, and  France — shows  that  the  United 
States  is  lagging  behind.  But  the  nation  as  a 
whole  is  beginning  to  recognize  the  fact  that 
well-developed  inland  waterways  are  necessary 
to  ensure  the  economic  future  of  the  country, 
and  to  demand  that  canal  possibilities  be  ex- 
amined in  the  light  of  modern  improvements, 
engineering  and  physical.  Hence  the  re- 
newed interest  in  what  was  not  long  since 
dubbed  "  a  dead  issue." 

Of  course  the  railroads  are  acknowledged  to 
be  the  arch-rivals  of  the  canals  as  a  mode  of 
transportation,  though  the  two  should  work 
together,  one  supplementing 
the  other.  A  day  of  reckoning 
came,  however,  when  the  rail- 
roads flatly  refused  any  further  freight  reduc- 
tions or  larger  rebates,  and  continued  their 
pernicious  practice  of  underbidding  the  water- 
ways and  afterwards  raising  prices,  thereby 
smothering  canal  prosperity,  but  giving  rise 
to  the  present  and  prospective  drastic  reforms 
in  canal  development.  "  Why  not  go  back 
to  our  faithful  canals  for  the  transportation 
and  distribution  of  articles  of  bulk — such  as 
coal,  iron,  lumber,  etc. — leaving  to  the  rail- 
roads the  handling  of  the  perishable  and 
'rush'  items — such  as  foodstuffs,  etc.  ?  "  sud- 
denly became  the  general  question. 

George  Washington,  in  his  well-known 
capacity  of  organizer,  investigated,  surveyed, 
and  backed  the  first  canal  propositions.  The 
affairs  of  the  first  canal  company,  the  Potomac, 
flourished  under  the  master  hand  of  its 
organizer,  only  to  languish  and  die  as  soon 
as  that  hand  was  removed  when  Washington 
was  made  President  of  the  United  States  in 
May  1787.. 

Time  was  when  canals   "  just  grew  "  in  a 

haphazard  sort  of  way  as  neces- 
Prescnt 
Developments.  '^""^  adjuncts  to  exploiting  the 

natural  resources  of  a  section 
of  the  country.  But  now  the  most  famous 
engineers  of   England,  America,  France,  and 


Italy  are  being  called  upon  to  devise  and 
make  possible  a  connected  route  of  inland 
waterways,  regardless  of  the  natural  and 
physical  aspect  of  the  sections  of  the  United 
States  to  be  traversed. 

The  realization  of  this  great  dream  presup- 
poses complete  reconciliation  between  raihoad 
and  canal  interests,  and  an  extension  of  both 
to  meet  the  insistent  demand  of  the  times,  so 
that  the  known  quantities  of  natural  resources 
may  be  distributed  to  trade  centres.  Internal 
trade  and  transportation  in  the  United  States 
greatly  exceeds  its  foreign  commerce.  The 
majority  of  American  commodities  are  articles 
of  bulk,  which,  to  be  handled  successfully, 
demand  cheap  transportation — canals — with 
facilities  for  shipping  from  producer  to  con- 
sumer, obviating  the  middleman's  share  in 
the  profit. 

For  instance,  from  the  vicinity  about  Lake 
Superior  comes  three-fourths  of  the  iron  ore 
mined  in  the  United  States,  and  the  largest 
part  of  this  ore  is  carried  hundreds  of  miles 
to  be  smelted  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  New 
York.  In  the  south,  cotton,  lumber,  and 
fruit  await  the  means  of  widespread  and 
thorough  distribution.  On  the  Pacific  coast, 
grain,  flour,  minerals,  fruit,  etc.,  demand 
facilities  for  exchange  and  barter.  The  pos- 
sibilities for  complete  exchange  and  then  ex- 
porting of  surplus  are  too  great  to  be  ignored. 
Perfect  commerce,  foreign  and  domestic,  would 
result.  Versatility  of  climate,  local  conditions, 
and  population  demand  extensive  and  con- 
tinuous inland  traffic  by  railroad  and  canal. 

Transportation  canals  generally  are  divided 
into  two  classes. — canals  built  to  improve  river 
or  land  navigation,  and  canals  built  to  con- 
nect separated  waterways. 
The  canalization  of  rivers  in 
the  United  States  is  taking  a 
prominent  place  in  bringing  about  the  above 
schemes.  The  pet  project  of  thQ  present  cen- 
tury, however,  is  to  connect  great  natural 
waterways  by  canals,  thus  forming  an  endless 


A  Great 
Project. 


TRANSPORTATION   CANALS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.     165 


chain  of  rivers,  lakes,  canals,  and  canalized 
rivers,  until  ocean  traffic  shall  be  possible  from 
the  most  inland  point. 

It  is  planned  to  connect  the  Ohio  River 
with  Lake  Erie,  the  Mississippi  River  with 
Lake  Michigan,  etc.  The  entire  Mississippi 
Valley,  the  Gulf  Coast,  and  the  Atlantic  coast 
can  be  made  a  continuous  system  by  means 
of  inland  canals  along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
of  Mexico  coasts.  For  this  purpose  there  are 
projected — a  canal  across  the  State  of  Florida 
to  connect  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  with  the  Atlantic 
coast,  canals  to  connect  Chesapeake  Bay  with 
the  Carolina  Sounds  and  the  Delaware  River 
with  the  Raritan,  and  a  canal  across  Cape  Cod. 
In  this  way  the  entire  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States  could  be  circumnavigated  on 
sheltered  waterways. 

A  handful  of  dauntless  men  are  responsible 
for  the  present-day  prosperity  to  which  canals 
are  an  important  adjunct.  These  men  braved 
the  stubborn  opposition  of  a  legion  of  "  cau- 
tious "  New  Yorkers,  and  negotiated  and 
planned,  schemed,  and  finally  accomplished 
canal  transportation  as  a  state  and  national 
asset.  Whenever  the  name  of  the  originator 
of  the  now  famous  Erie  State  Canal,  De  Witt 
Clinton,  was  mentioned,  the  multitude  said, 
"  In  Clinton's  big  ditch  would  be  buried  the 
treasure  of  the  state,  to  be  watered  by  the 
tears  of  posterity."  Now  we  may  say,  "  In 
Clinton's  big  ditch  was  planted  the  treasure  of 
the  state,  to  be  fostered  by  the  prosperity  of 
posterity."  This  "  big  ditch  "  is  now  one  of 
the  commercial  and  engineering  wonders  of 
the  world.  When  it  is  completed,  a  new  era 
in  trade  and  traffic  will  begin. 

A  study  of   the   canals  by  State   divisions 

will   doubtless   give   the   true   aspect   of   the 

canal   question  in   the  United   States.     First 

and  foremost  comes  New  York 

Old  Erie,  New  g^^^^      j^  ^724,  when  the  en- 

P  .     ^      '..     thusiastic  Surveyor-General  of 
the  Colony  of  New  York  pic- 
tured the  great  possibilities  of  inland  naviga- 


tion, and  when  later,  in  1777,  another  enthu- 
siast, Gouverneur  Morris,  declared  possible  the 
union  of  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes  with 
those  of  the  Hudson  River  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  the  matter  immediately  became  a 
political  issue.  At  last,  in  October  1825,  a 
voice  rang  out  in  challenge  across  the  water 
of  the  first  Erie  Canal. 

"  Who  comes  there  ?  " 

"  Your  brothers  from  the  west,  on  the 
waters  of  the  Great  Lakes." 

"  By  what  means  have  they  been  diverted 
so  far  from  their  natural  course  ?  " 

"  By  the  channel  of  the  Grand  Erie." 

"  By  whose  authority,  and  by  whom,  was 
a  work  of  such  magnitude  accomplished  ?  " 

"  By  the  authority  and  by  the  enterprise 
of  the  patriotic  people  of  the  State  of  New 
York." 

These  challenges  and  answers  greeted  the 
first  canal  boat,  the  Seneca  Chief,  midway  on 
its  trip  down  the  first  American  venture  in 
canal-building  as  a  permanent  means  of 
transportation.  All  along  the  route,  from 
Buffalo  to  Albany,  the  people  greeted  the 
boat  with  holiday  expressions  of  good-will 
and  congratulation.  On  November  4,  1825, 
the  boat  and  its  load  of  officials  arrived  in 
New  York  City  to  witness  the  spectacular 
"  wedding  of  the  waters  "  in  fulfilment  of  the 
prophecy  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  who,  unfor- 
tunately, did  not  live  to  see  his  dream  come 
true.  Two  kegs  of  water  from  Lake  Erie, 
and  bottles  of  water  from  the  Nile,  the 
Ganges,  the  Indus,  the  Thames,  the  Seine, 
the  Rhine,  the  Mississippi,  the  Columbia,  the 
Orinoco,  and  the  La  Plata,  were  all  cere- 
moniously mingled  in  the  Atlantic,  thereby 
typifying  international  commerce  by  means 
of  canals. 

For  fifty  years  the  Erie  Canal  in  its  present 
state  wielded  a  despotic  sceptre  over  the 
commerce  and  growth  of  the  entire  State. 
After  a  time,  however,  its  vigilance  and 
jealous  guard  over  its  transportation  suprem- 


DAM    BEING    BUILT    AT    VISCHEr's    FERRY,    ON    THE    NEW    ERIE    CANAL. 
LOCK    IN    COURSE    OF    CONSTRUCTION    AT    WATERFORD,    NEW    ERIE    CANAL. 


TRANSPORTATION   CANALS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.     167 


SUCTION    DREDGE    "  ONEIDA 


The  spoil  passes  out  through  the  pipes  at  the  stem. 


acy  waned  through  its  very  affluence  ;  and 
it  was  not  until  the  National  Government  had 
deepened   the   channel   in   the 


Wane  of  the 
Old  Erie  Canal. 


Lakes  to  20  feet  and  the 
Hudson  Eiver  to  12  feet,  and 
the  Canadian  Government  had  begun  prepara- 
tions to  increase  its  average  canal  depth 
from  12  to  20  feet  from  Chicago  to  Montreal, 
that  the  Erie  Canal  began  to  look  to  its 
laurels.  Previously  the  "  Erie "  had  been 
content  with  its  7  feet  for  boats  drawing 
only  5  feet.  The  rude  awakening,  however, 
to  the  fact  that  competition  was  increasing 
on  all  sides  and  smothering  the  Erie  Canal, 
marked  the  beginning  of  many  interesting  ex- 
periments in  steam  and  electric  propulsion, 
and  in  the  construction  of  bridges,  banks, 
boats,  locks,  slips,  etc. 

The  first  scheme  for  electric 

ec  nc        propulsion  on  the  Erie  Canal 
Towage. 

was    known    as    the   Milligan, 

which  consisted  of   a   series  of   14-foot  posts 

along    the    bank    of    the    tow-path,    carrying 


two  continuous  rails,  known  as  the  east  and 
west  bound  rails,  about  three  feet  apart.  A 
tow-line  was  connected  with  the  boat  from  a 
20  horse-power  motor  running  on  the  rails. 
Another  scheme — the  Lamb  system — consisted 
of  a  line  of  poles  along  the  bank  support- 
ing a  stationary  cableway  on  which  electric 
motor  carriages  travelled,  towing  the  attached 
boats. 

The  present  style  of  canal  locks  is  a  simple 
device  based  on  the  original  invention  ot 
that  versatile  Italian,  Leonardo  da  Vinci — 
a  sort  of  tank  or  chamber  placed  in  a 
canal  in  such  a  manner  that  a  vessel 
can  be  lifted  from  one  level  to  another  by 
simply  closing  the  end  gate  and  filling  the 
tank.  This  plan,  with  slight  deviations,  has 
been  used  for  upwards  of  four  hundred  years  ; 
but  now,  in  the  twentieth  century,  the  method 
is  to  be  changed  radically. 

Heretofore  canal-builders  have  sought  long, 
easy  grades,  down  which  the  canal  could 
climb    easily,    assisted    by    the    intei'positiou 


168 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


A    LUBECKER   EXCAVATOR    SCOOPING    EARTH   FROM    THE    PRISM    OF   THE    NEW    ERIE    CANAL. 


of  many  locks.  Now,  the  longest  possible 
level  route  will  be  chosen,  and  the  descent 
— now  made  through  many  tedious  locks — 
will  be  made,  where  possible,  in  a  single 
abrupt  drop,  reducing  greatly  the  number  of 
locks,  the  time  now  required  for  lockage,  and 
the  personnel  and  equipment. 

The  application  of  the   new   principle   will 

be  exploited  in  the  resuscitation  of  the  Erie 

State  Canal  of  New  York,  beginning  at  the 

town  of  Lockport,  where  there 

^tT^  ,7^.***"  ^^^  ^^°^  ^^®  old-style  locks. 
These  five  locks  will  be  re- 
placed by  a  pair  of  the  new- 
style  pneumatic  lifts,  having 
an  extreme  lift  of  62 1  feet  (tre})ling  the  high- 
est lift  now  obtainable).  The  new  device  will 
cost  $500,000  in  itself,  and  will  have  a  capa- 
city six  times  greater  than  the  old  locks, 
which  cost  almost  $700,000. 

A  pneumatic  lock  consists  of  two  units. 
Each  unit  has  an  upper  boat  chamber,  to  the 
bottom  of  which  is  attached  an  inverted 
caisson.     When  submerged,  this  caisson  forms 


New  York 

State  Barge 

Canal. 


a  natural  seal  for  the  compressed  air  inside. 
The  locks  work  in  pairs,  one  rising  when 
the  other  falls.  They  move  up  and 
down  in  steel  guiding-frames,  and  may  be 
built  either  side  by  side  or  end  on  to  one 
another. 

An  immense  tube,  fitted  with  a  valve,  per- 
mits the  air  to  pass  quickly  from  one  of  the 
compressed-air  compartments  to  the  other. 
The  flow  of  compressed  air  is  constant,  except 
when  a  vessel  has  been  locked  through  and 
the  valve  is  closed.  An  extra  pressure  of 
air  against  the  elevated  lock  from  beneath, 
assisted  by  anchors  above,  holds  the  elevated 
lock  in  place. 

Meanwhile,  the  depressed  caisson  settles 
quietly  into  the  lower  level  of  the  canal.  A 
vessel  is  admitted  to  either  or  both  locks, 
and  as  a  vessel  displaces  only  its  own  weight 
of  water,  the  compressed  air  keeps  the 
locks  in  balance  when  the  gates  are  closed. 
Upon  an  additional  quantity  of  water  being 
let  into  the  chamber  of  the  elevated  lock, 
that  lock  sinks,  forcing  the  air  in  the  caisson 


TRANSPORTATION   CANALS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.     169 


beneath  through  the  tube  into  the  other 
caisson.  The  locks  change  position,  and  per- 
mit the  gates  to  be  opened  and  the  vessel  or 
vessels  to  be  floated  out. 

A  lock  of  this  type  is  being  constructed  at 
another  point  on  the  Erie  Canal — namely,  at 


are  handled  by  steam  shovels  ;  Page  scraper 
buckets  throw  up  levees  and  excavate  prisms 
in  earth  sections  ;  hard  subaqueous  rock  is 
carried  away  by  orange-peel  buckets  and 
dipper  dredges  ;  soft  subaqueous  material  by 
hydraulic  and  ladder  dredges  ;  and  so  on. 

Most  of  the  mate- 
rials .  encountered  — 
varying  from  soft  sand 
and  clays  of  all  kinds 
to  cemented  gravel — 
can  be  handled  by 
the  hydraulic  dredge 
known  as  the  "  (Pey- 
ser." Tliese  machines 
have  cutters  weighing 
7,000  lbs.  each,  and 
are  driven  by  a  double 
10  X  1 2-inch  engine  of 
65  horse-power.     They 


END    VIEW    OP    A    SUCTION 
DREDGER. 

Pipes  for  delivering  the  spoil  on  to  the 
banks  seen  in  the  background. 

Cohoes,  New  York — to  take 
the  place  of  a  series  of  four- 
teen of  the  old-style  locks, 
and  will  have  powef  to  lift 
eighty  Mogul  locomotives.  It 
is  said  that  five  hundred  of 
these  heavy  locomotives  could 
be  lifted  by  this  device  if 
need  be. 

A  detailed  inspection  of  the  prosecution  of 
the  numerous  contracts  let  for  this  great 
work  would  offer  excellent  object  lessons 
to  engineering  sceptics.  The 
various  contractors  engaged 
upon  the  work  are  assem- 
bling modern  machinery  most  suited  to  the 
various  plans  of  the  work,  instead  of  employ- 
ing makeshift  equipment  to  do  work  other 
than  that  for  which  it  was  intended.  For 
instance,    dry    earth    and   rock    excavations 


Modern  Canal 
Machinery. 


"Qeysers." 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  THE  LUBECKER  EXCAVATOR. 

can  dig  18  feet  below  water-level,  discharging 
material  through  1,500  feet  of  20-inch  pipe  to  a 
height  of  25  feet  above  water. 

« 

The  pump   is    connected  to  a 
triple  expansion  marine  engine  of   450  nom- 
inal and  550  overload  horse-power. 

The  swing  bridges  along  the  canal  are  oper- 
ated in  most  cases  by  electricity. 

Another  interesting  detail  of  the  work  now 
in    progress    is    the    pile-driving    equipment. 


170 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


The  drivers  are  usually  mounted  on  wheels 
with  a  19-foot  gauge,  and  upon  the  frame- 
work is  another  set  of  wheels 
placed  transversely  to  the  first, 
enabling  the  whole  outfit  to  travel  back  and 
forth  over  the  work,  or  permit  the  leads  to 
travel  in  a  transverse  direction  to  cover  a 
line  of  piles  20  feet  or  more  long  at  every  for- 
ward move  of  the  driver.  In  an  eight-hour 
day  one  hundred  and  eighteen  25-foot  piles 
can  be  driven. 

The  sand  and  gravel  washing  and  screening 

plants  are  also  of  interest.     These  plants  are 

located  on  the  sides  of  hills,   at  the  top  of 

which  are  the  sand  and  gravel 

Screening,      pj^g      ^^   orange-peel    bucket 

^'*  W*'*"h^'  ^^^  ^^^"^^  ^^^  excavated  material 
Plants  ^^*^  dump- wagons,  which  haul 
it  to  a  set  of  "  grizzlies,'*  which 
reject  all  stone  over  three  inches,  and  drop  the 
small  stuff  through  chutes  to  a  jaw-crusher 
below.  From  the  crusher  the  stone  falls  into 
the  boot  of  a  bucket-elevator,  which  hoists 
it  to  the  storage-bin.  The  sand  and  gravel 
coming  into  the  grizzlies  pass  on  to  a  rotary 
screen,  in  which  a  jet  of  water  is  made  to 
travel  in  the  direction  opposite  to  the  move- 
ments of  the  sand  and  gravel.  The  sand 
drops  into  a  hopper,  and  a  screw  conveyor 
carries  it  under  water  to  a  bucket-elevator, 
which  deposits  it  in  the  storage-bin.  The 
gravel  goes  direct  to  the  bin,  and  the  rejec- 
tions (stones  over  two  and  a  half  inches)  go 
to  the  crusher. 

The  concrete-mixing  plants  are  built  by 
individual  contractors  for  work  under  their 
respective  contracts.  An  elevated  storage- 
bin,  a  mixer,  and  storage  space  on  either  side 
for  sand  constitute  the  principal  features  of 
these  plants,  which  are  driven  by  electricity. 
The  stone  and  sand  are  dropped  into  measur- 
ing-boxes, and  the  cement  added,  mixed,  and 
discharged  into  buckets  on  flat  cars. 

Another  important  canal  is  the  Sault  Ste. 


Marie,  forming  the  northernmost  link  in  the 
chain  of  inland  waterways.  Between  two  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  Superior  and 
Huron,     we     find     a     district 


Sault  Ste. 
Marie  Canal. 


teeming  with  the  bustle, 
energy,  and  goodwill  of  a  healthy  interna- 
tional commerce,  and  a  canal  once  described 
by  one  of  America's  greatest  statesmen  as  a 
"  work  beyond  the  remotest  settlement  in  the 
United  States,  if  not  in  the  moon  !  " 

In  1836  Michigan  was  initiated  into  the 
mysteries  of  statehood.  In  1837,  the  first 
governor  in  his  first  message  to  the  first 
Legislature  of  that  State  urged  the  immediate 
construction  of  a  canal  to  assist  in  distributing 
the  natural  resources  of  that  section — copper, 
iron,  fisheries,  furs,  pine,  timber,  and  farm 
products.  Yet,  notwithstanding  this  known 
wealth,  and  the  enlistment  of  neighbouring 
States  in  the  canal  petitions,  Congress  could 
not  be  persuaded  to  loosen  the  national  purse- 
strings.  It  did,  however,  present  the  canal 
interests  with  a  land  grant  of  750,000  acres. 
Meanwhile,  commercial  interests  were  chafing 
under  the  repression  of  the  possible  boundless 
traffic.  So  a  contract  was  agreed  upon,  which 
provided  that  the  contractors,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  750,000  acres,  should  construct 
within  two  years  the  *long-wished-for  canal 
between  the  two  lakes. 

The  canal  was  to  have  two  consecutive 
locks,  350  feet  long,  70  feet  wide,  and  13  feet 
deep.  The  width  of  the  canal  was  to  be  100 
feet,  and  the  calculated  cost  was  $557,739. 
The  actual  cost  of  the  first  attempt,  however, 
was  $999,803.46, 

In  June  1853  work  began,  and  on  April  19, 
1855,  the  first  boat  passed  through  the  locks 
of   the   now   famous   St.    Mary's   Ship   Canal. 
Twelve    years    later    the    im- 
mediate   enlargement    of    the      t margin jf 
,     ,  *  the  Canal 

eanal     became     necessary     to  .  i  ^gj^g 

meet  the  insistent  demand  of 

the  outside  world  for  a  share  in  the  mineral 

wealth    lying    in    the    vicinity  of    the   canal. 


TRANSPORTATION   CANALS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.     171 


Increasing  com- 
merce made  yet  an- 
other lock  necessary. 
So  the  Poe  Lock, 
with  a  chamber  800 
feet  long  and  1 00  feet 
wide,  and  a  depth 
of  about  19  feet  at 
low-water,  was  built 
to  reinforce  the 
Weitzel. 

These  locks  were 
confidently  expected 
to  handle  the  com- 
merce of  Lake  Su- 
perior, but  at  times 
are  congested  to  an 


The  boats  had  grown  in  size, 
and  the  locks  were  not  cap- 
able of  handling  them.  The 
canal  was  at  that  time  under 
state  control,  and  it  soon 
became  evident  that  for  the 
full  development  of  the  inter- 
ests involved  the  wisest  move 
would  be  to  transfer  it  to  the 
General  Government.  The 
transfer  was  effected  on  June 
9,  1881,  since  which  time  no 
tolls  have  been  collected. 

In  1870  the  rapid  increase 
in  commerce  and  in  the  carry- 
ing capacity  of  the  boats 
brought  about  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Weitzel  Lock, 
which  was  completed  in  1881. 

It    is    500   feet 
The 
Weitzel  and 
Poe  Locks. 


A  "  WHALEBACK  "  STEAMER  ENTERING  THE  LOWER  END  OK  THE 
POE  LOCK  ON  THE  ST.  MARY's  FALLS  CANAL,  BETWEEN  LAKE> 
SUPERIOR    AND    HURON. 

THE    WEITZEL    LOCK    ON    THE    ST.   MAKV's     FALLS   (    \N\I,;     HICll    WATER. 


long,  80  feet 
wide  in  the  chamber,  and  has 
about  14  feet 'of  water  over  the 
sills  at  low- water.  The  walls 
are  of  limestone,  and  contain  34,207  cubic 
yards  of  masonry.  Water  is  admitted  into 
the  lock  through  culverts  under  the  floor. 


exasperating  degree.  Boats  have  reached  a  size 
that  renders  the  present  lockage  facilities  almost 
useless.  Many  of  them  now  have  a  capacity 
of  8,000  tons,  and  at  the  present  time  there 
are  some  thirty-two  of  these  8.000-ton  boats 
plying  on  the  Lakes.  This  adds  20  per  cent., 
or    338,000    tons,    for    a    single    trip,   to   tlu- 


172 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THE    TWIN    LOCKS,    THE    WEITZEL    AND    FOE,    ON    THE    ST.    MARY  S    FALLS    CANAL. 


carrying  capacity  of  the  fleet  transporting  ore 
from  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Superior.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  trips  of  these  vessels 
through  the  locks  number  25,000  a  year. 

These  "  twin  "  locks,  the  Poe  and  Weitzel, 
are  named  after  two  able  generals  detailed 
from  the  War  Department  to  make  recom- 
mendations and  supervise  plans  to  suit  the 
unprecedented  commercial  growth — a  task  in 
which  they  were  ably  assisted  by  the  eminent 
engineer,  Alfred  Noble. 

The  appropriations  made  for  the  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  Canal  and  improvements  total 
$2,405,000.  The  length  of  the  canal  is  7,000 
feet,  and  the  least  width — at  the  movable  dam 
where  the  swing  span  or  International  Bridge 
is  built — is  108  feet.  The  water  averages 
about  16  feet  in  depth.  Plans  are  now  on 
foot  by  the  United  States  Government  to 
double  the  present  width  at  the  narrowest 
place,  thereby  relieving  the  present  dangerous 
strong  current  that  occurs  when  the  locks  are 


filled.     This  will  also  enable  two  or  more  locks 
to  be  filled  at  the  same  time. 

This  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  is  among  the 
largest  and  finest  engineering  achievements  in 
the  United  States,  and  will  rank  as  first 
among  its  canals  until  the  final  completion  of 
the  Erie. 

Traffic  demanded  a  canal  to  connect  Lake 
Michigan  with  the  Mississippi  River.  Hence 
the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  named  after 
the  State  traversed  and  the  lake  in  question. 

The  first  link  in  this  is  the  Chicago  Drain- 
age Canal — or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the 
Sanitary  and  Ship  Canal — which  cost  about 
S50,000,000.  This  canal  can, 
if  need  be,  carry  the  volume 
of  a  large  river.  Its  use  is 
twofold  :  first,  as  its  name 
implies,  it  deals  with  the  sewage  of  Chicago, 
a  city  of  2,500,000  persons  ;  second,  it  is  used 
largely  for  navigation  between  Lake  Michigan 
and  the  Mississippi  River.     It  is  34  miles  long. 


Chicago 

Drainage 

Canal. 


TRANSPORTATION   CANALS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.     173 


LU(;    HAi  1',    TUG,    AND    BARGE    AT    A    LOCK    ON    A    CA.NAH/,KU    lUVKIi. 

26  feet  deep,    300  feet  wide  on  the  surface. 
The  sewage  it  carries  is  rendered  innocuous 
by  the  immense  flow  of  water.     Formerly  the 
sewage    flowed   into    Lake   Michigan   through 
the  Chicago  River  ;  but  so  many  water  supplies 
were  polluted,  and 
so    much    life    en- 
dangered, that  this 
canal   was    devised 
to  cure  the  trouble, 
and  also   to   make 
the  city  of  Chicago 
queen     of      inland 
ports. 

Wonderful  mod- 
ern machinery  was 
used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the 
canal.  Only  two 
looks,  of  the  new 
pneumatic  type, 
will  be  required  for 
its  entire  length. 
Immense  bridge- 
like iron  structures 
of  the  cantilever 
type,  swinging  like 
see-saws  in  mid-air, 


carry  and  dump 
earth  and  rock  from 
the  canal  bottom  to 
the  spoil  banks,  hun- 
dreds of  feet  away, 
removing  in  a  ten- 
hour  shift  an  average 
of  500  cubic  yards. 

The  canal  was  in 
some  places  cut  a 
depth  of  30  to  40 
feet,  through  rock, 
with  the  aid  of  dyn- 
amite. Machines 
known  as  "  chan- 
nellers  "  cut  1^-inch 
crevices     along    the 

sides   of  the   canal.      In   these,    dynamite   or 

gelatine   was    exploded,    leaving    a    perfectly 

smooth  vertical  face. 

The  engineers  also  used  ingenious  dredges 

of   huge   proportions.     A  floating   barge  eon- 


A    NEEDLE    DAM,     WITH    NEEDLES    REMOVED    (ON    THE     RIGHT). 
A  bargo  is  seen  removing  those  nf  t]\o  left-hand  portion. 


174 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


future     water-power 


taining  immense  pumps  attached  to  a  nozzle 
composed  of  a  series  of  knife-like  blades, 
places  this  nozzle  on  the  spot  to  be  exca- 
vated ;  the  blades  revolve,  and  the  earth  is 
drawn  into  a  vast  suction-pipe.  A  single 
dredge  will  move  168,000  cubic  yards  of  earth 
in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  phases  of  the 
development  on  the 
Drainage  Canal  are 
interesting  studies.  A 
water-power  plant  at 
Lockport  will  have  five 
units  of  8,000  horse- 
power ;  and  a  large 
amount  of  water-power 
is  now  being  developed 
at  the  south  end  of  the 
canal,  where  it  dis- 
charges through  a  tail- 
race  into  the  Des 
Plaines  River. 

The  controlling  in- 
terests of  the  canal 
have  been  steadily  ac- 
quiring from  time  to 
time  strips  of  land  from 
200  to  800  feet  in 
width,  with  a  view  to 
use  in  connection  with 
manufacturing  plants 
that  will  be  installed 
to  utilize  the  water- 
power  to  be  developed, 
and  to  take  advantage 
of  the  shipping  facilities  afforded,  by  the  canal. 

The  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  proper,  of 

which   the   above   described   canal   is   only   a 

unit,  is  91  miles  in  length,  with  an  additional 

18  miles  in  the  Illinois  River. 

The  Illinois     j^-g  ^i(ith  averages  80  feet  at 
and  Michigan  ,.  j     •+     j     xi     • 

C  n  1  water-line,    and    its   depth    is 

7  feet.     In  all  there  are  about 

thirty-four  locks.     Twenty  have    mitre  gates 

throughout,  and  fourteen  have  lower  gates  of 


THE    WOODEN    NEEDLES    OF    A    NEEDLE    DAM, 
AND    TRESTLE. 


the  mitre  type,  the  upper,  or  "  tumble,"  gates 
turning  on  a  horizontal  axis.  Hydraulic 
pressure  is  used  to  lower  the  upper  gates, 
which  lift  themselves  by  their  own  buoyancy. 
The  locks  are  35  feet  wide  and  170  feet  long 
between  mitre  sills,  and  are  built  of  concrete. 
Proceeding  down  the  Mississippi  we  reach 
cotton,   lumber,  fruit,   and   mineral   districts. 

At  the  delta  of  this 
great  river  is  found 
the  interesting  Lake 
Borgne  Canal,  in  the 
State  of  Louisiana. 
It  is  7  miles  long,  200 
feet  wide,  and  very 
deep.  Since  1901  it 
has  given  continuous 
water  communication 
with  three  southern 
lakes  (the  Maurepas, 
Pontchartrain,  and 

Borgne)       and       three 
southern     rivers     (the 
Mobile,   Alabama,    and 
Warrior).      It    has   re- 
duced distances  great- 
ly.      Gulf    of    Mexico 
traffic  is  brought  right 
up  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  to  the 
'levees  at  New  Orleans, 
Louisiana.      Expensive 
transhipment       has 
been      abolished      and 
freight  -  rates    reduced. 
Sea-going  vessels,  drawing  10  and  12  feet,  can 
come  within  20  miles  of  New  Orleans  without 
the  cost  of  towage. 

This  canal  has  also  changed  the  status  of 
coal  in  New  Orleans.  Prior  to  its  construc- 
tion, coal  was  a  luxury,  as  it  had  to  be  floated 
2,100  miles  down  the  Mississippi  River  from 
Pennsylvania  ;  but  now  Lake  Borgne  Canal 
has  opened  up  the  coalfields  in  the  sister  States 
of  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  reducing  prices  of 


TRANSPORTATION   CANALS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.     175 


TRESTLES    OF    NEEDLE    DAM    LYING    FLAT    ON    THE    WEIR  S    FOUNDATION    SILL, 

SO    THAT    BOATS    MAY    PASS    OVER    THE    SILL    WHEN    THE    WATER    RISES. 

The  trestles  are  lowered  by  being  pulled  over  sideways.     They  are  hinged 
top  and  bottom. 


coal,   and   offering   inducements    to    steamers 
purchasing  bunker  coal. 

Passing  eastward  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 

coast,  the  next  link  will  be  a  ship  canal  across 

the  peninsula  of  Florida,  connecting  the  Gulf 

of   Mexico   with   the   Atlantic 

^.  ^. .  '*®P*^^^      Ocean,  and  obviating  the  long 
Florida  Canal.  '  ^  ^ 

and  tedious  journey  now  neces- 
sary around  the  peninsula,  through  the  dan- 
gerous Keys  and  Everglades. 

The  next  canal,  the  Albemarle  and  Chesa- 
peake, on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  will, 
when  improved  to  meet  the  new  demands,  do 
away  altogether  with  the  dan- 
gerous passage  around  Cape 
Hatteras  of  all  vessels.  The 
danger  here  from  rocks,  shoals, 
currents,  etc.,  is  evidenced  by  the  long  row  of 
sentinel-like  lightships  stationed  up  and  down 
the  coast  all  the  year  round.  The  Dismal 
Swamp  is  partner  to  the  above  canal  in 
handling    the    traffic     to    Norfolk,    Virginia, 


Albemarle  and 

Chesapeake 

Canal. 


the  great  trade  centre 
and  seaport  of  the 
south. 

Proceeding  still  fur- 
ther up  the  Atlantic 
sea-board,  we  come  to 
the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  Canal,  184  miles 
in  length,  with  seventy- 
three  old-style  locks. 
The  depth  averages  6 
feet.  Steam  propulsion 
varies  with  mule-tow- 
age as  a  means  of  tran- 
sit. 

Then,  crossing  Dela- 
ware to  New  Jersey, 
comes  the  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  Canal, 
small  but  important, 
and  awaiting  modern 
improvements. 

Now  we  diverge  in- 
land to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  the  great 
anthracite  coal  region.  In  this  State  canal 
history  reads  like  a  page  from  a  romance. 
The  discovery  of  anthracite  coal  brought 
about  the  construction  of  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Canal  in  1829,  and  afterwards,  in 
rapid  succession,  of  the  Morris,  Schuylkill, 
etc.  These  canals  once  carried  approximately 
as  much  as  2,000,000  tons  each  per  season, 
but  have  been  practically  killed  by  railroad 
competition. 

The  only  canal  of  any  importance  in  this 
State  at  the  present  day  is  the  Pennsylvania 
Canal,  193  miles  long,  with  seventj'-one  locks, 
and  6  feet  deep.  The  present  actual  cost  of 
moving  freight  on  a  100- ton  canal-barge  is 
somewhat  less  than  half  a  cent  per  ton  per 
mile,  and  proportionally  less  according  to  size 
of  the  barge. 

Moving  westward,  we  come  to  the  State 
of  Ohio,  wherein  a  healthy  interest  in  canal 
affairs  is  evidenced  bv  the  efforts  of  the  State 


176 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


to  adjust  the  question  of  boundaries  be- 
tween state  and  private  canal  lands,  and  to 
recover  as  many  as  possible 
of  the  state  lands  that  are 
tied  up  by  ninety-nine  year  leases  and  long- 
time rentals. 

This  State,  with  its  area  of  40,760  square 
miles,  its  population  of  4,157,545,  and  its 
natural  resources  of  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  and 
salt,  is  busying  itself  in  the  matter  of  canal 
traffic  and  the  prosperity  that  follows  in  the 
wake  of  properly  managed  canal  systems.  It 
is  purchasing  its  own  machinery,  dredges, 
drills,  etc.,  and  is  replacing  all  the  old  wooden 
locks  with  staunch  concrete  structures. 


Movable 
Dams. 


The  rivers  in  this  State  are  being  canalized 
to  a  remarkable  degree,  and  the  accompanying 
illustrations  show  the  ingenious  needle  dams 
constructed  to  equalize  the 
depth  of  the  water  during  slack 
water  seasons,  and  permit  the 
utilization  of  the  river  by  means  of  locks,  even 
at  low  water,  when  the  dams  can  be  laid  flat 
on  the  bottom  of  the  river.  The  method  of 
operation  is  simple  but  effective.  The  needles 
or  pieces  of  timber  are  removed  from  their 
sockets  and  floated  to  the  side  of  the  stream  ; 
then,  by  jerking  a  chain — which  is  done  by 
steam  in  a  boat  further  up-stream — the  dam 
collapses,  unit  by  unit. 


HALF    OF    A    NAVIGABLE    PASS. 

A  chain  is  attached  at  intervals  to  all  the  needles.     When  pulled  it  releases  the  needles 
from  the  frames,  and  allows  them  to  float  down-stream,  as  seen  in  the  picture. 


STEKL    AKCH    OF    150    FEET    SPAN    CARRYIXG    THE    PIPES    OF    THE    ELAN-BIKMINGHAM    AQUEDUCT    ACKOSS 

THE   SEVERN. 

(Photo,  by  courtesy  of  Memrs.  J.   Mansergh  and  ^on«.) 


GREAT    BRITISH    DAMS    AND 

AQUEDUCTS. 

BY    THE    EDITOR. 


THE  concentration  of  human  beings  into 
densely-populated  areas,  the  conse- 
quent fouling  of  local  surface  water 
supplies,  and  the  exhaustion  or  insufficiency 
of  deep  wells,  give  rise  to  the  very  serious 
problem  of  how  to  supply  huge  cities  with  a 
copious  supply  of  wholesome 
water.  The  Romans  faced  the 
problem  many  centuries  ago, 
and  solved  it  by  leading  water  from  dis- 
tant and  unpolluted  sources  through  masonry 
ducts,  the  remains  of  which  are  sufficient 
proof  of  the  genius  of  the  constructors. 
Roman  engineers  had  so  to  plan  and  build  their 


Roman 
Aqueducts. 


(1,408) 


12 


aqueducts  that  the  surface  of  the  wat^r  should 
follow  the  hydraulic  gradient — an  imaginary 
line  joining  the  point  of  entry  of  the  supply 
and  the  point  of  its  ultimate  discharge.  Their 
aqueducts  were,  in  fact,  artificial  rivers,  which 
had  to  be  carried  on  arches  or  walls  across 
valleys  and  places  where  the  natural  surface  of 
the  ground  fell  below  the  hydraulic  gradient. 
In  order  to  avoid  tunnelling — a  very  difficult 
matter  to  the  ancients — hills  had  to  be  skirted, 
the  length  of  the  aqueduct  increased,  and  the 
gradient  flattened,  which  in  turn  involved  the 
enlargement  of  the  cross  sectional  area  of  the 
channel. 

VOL.    HL 


THE  SITE  OF  THE  LAKE  VYRNWY  BEFORE  THE  WATER  WAS  IMPOUNDED, 

A  VIEW  TAKEN  FROM  THE  SAME  POINT  AS  THE  ABOVE,  SHOWING  THE  GREAT  DAM  AND  THE  LAKE  IT 

IMPOUNDS.     On  the  right  is  the  tower  through  which  water  is  admitted  to  the  aqueduct. 

{Photos,  J.  Madardy.) 


GREAT    BRITISH    DAMS    AND    AQUEDUCTS. 


179 


Motjern 
Aqueducts. 


The  modern  engineer  enjoys  the  immense 
advantages  conferred  by  the  employment  of 
iron  and  steel  pipes  able  to  withstand  very 
high  pressures,  and  the  ability 
to  drive  long  tunnels  at  a 
sufhciently  low  cost  to  make 
it  worth  while  to  substitute  them  for  cir- 
cuitous surface  sections.  He  lays  out  his 
aqueduct  on  the  shortest  possible  line  between 
its  ends  consistent  with  economical  construc- 
tion ;  and  it  should  be  pointed  out  that 
shortness  increases  the  steepness  of  the 
gradient,  that  steepness  promotes  velocity 
of  flow,  and  that  the  faster  water  moves 
the  smaller  and  cheaper  is  the  pipe  or  channel 
which  will  convey  a  given  quantity  in  a  given 
time. 

According  to  the  physical  features  of  the 
country  passed  through,  the  most  suitable  of 
three  methods  of  construction  is  selected. 
Where  a  hill  is  encountered  and  a  detour  is 
inadvisable,  a  tunnel  is  driven  through  it  on 
the  hydraulic  gradient,  and,  where  necessary, 
lined  with  cement  or  brick  to  prevent  erosion 
of  the  rock  and  obstruction  of  the  channel. 

On  sections  where  the  surface  of  the  ground 
follows  the  hydraulic  gradient  closely,  cut- 
and-cover  becomes  practicable.  This  form  of 
construction  consists  of  dig- 
ging a  trench,  building  on  the 
bottom  an  inverted  arch  (some- 
times a  flat  floor  is  used), 
raising  the  side  walls  upward  from  this,  and 
covering  over  the  channel  thus  formed  with 
an  arched  roof,  on  which  some  of  the  material 
excavated  is  placed  to  restore  the  natural  level 
of  the  surface.  At  intervals  manholes  are 
fixed  to  give  access  to  the  conduit. 

Through  undulating  country  and  across 
valleys  pipes  are  used.  An  unbroken  length 
of  pipe  with  its  ends  on  the  hydraulic 
gradient  and  intermediate  parts  below  the 
gradient,  is  known  as  an  inverted  sj'phon, 
or,  more  shortly,  as  a  syphon. 

To  prevent  the  pipes  being  subjected  to  an 


Three 

Methods  of 

Construction. 


excessive  "  head  "  of  water,  o[)en  "  balancing 

reservoirs  "  are,  where  necessary,  and  where 

physical      conditions     permit, 

built  on  the  hydraulic  gradient .       Balancinjc 
.        .  »     .        Reservoirs. 

Into   each    of    these    water   is 

discharged  from  the  lower  end  of  the  syplion 

immediately  above,  to  be  passed  into  the  uj)per 

end  of  the  syphoh  immediately  below.     The 

reservoirs  also  serve  for  local  supply  service, 

and  assist  in  the  regulation  of  the  flow  through 

the  aqueduct. 

The  hydraulic  gradient  of  both  tunnel  and 
syphon  sections  is  in  many  cases  made  steeper 
than  the  general  gradient,  as  these  two  classes 
of  construction  are  more  costly  than  the  cut- 
and-cover  or  conduit,  and  because,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  steepness  allows 
reduction  in  the  size  of  the  channel. 

Tunnels  and  conduits  are  made  full  size  in 
the  first  instance — that  is,  are  given  a  cross 
section  of  sufficient  area  to  pass  the  full 
supply  for  which  the  aqueduct  is  designed. 
In  syphon  sections  the  flow  is  distributed 
among  a  number  of  separate  pipe  lines,  which 
are  laid  successively  as  the  need  for  an  increased 
supply  arises. 

From  these  preliminary  remarks  we  proceed 
to  a  description  of  some  of  the  most  notable 
British  aqueducts.*     The  first  chronologically 

is  that  which  leads  water  to 

^,  t  •        f  1     1  The  Glasgow 

Glasgow  from  a  series  or  lochs       .         .    * 

°  Aqueducts. 
—  Katrine,  Drunkie,  and  Ven- 

nachar.     Across  the  mouths  of  the  Gist  and 

last  of  these  lochs  were  built  masonry  dams  ; 

the  level  of  the  second  was  raised  by  means 

of  earthen  embankments.    From  the  lochs  the 

water  passes  through  an  aqueduct  25 1  miles 

long  to   the   Mugdock   reservoir,   where  it  is 

strained    for    delivery    to    the    city.      Of    its 

length,    13   miles    consist    of    tunnels,    driven 

mostly  through  sound  hard  rock  ;    9  miles  of 

cut-and-cover  ;    and  3J  miles  of  sj-phon,  made* 

up   of  two   lines   of   48-inch  pipes — one  only 

*  Lack  of  space  prevents  a  description  of  tbe  Dublin  and 
Edinburgh  aqueducts. 


180 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


was  laid  in  the  first  instance — and  one  line 
of  36-inch  pipes.  This  aqueduct,  which  passes 
40,000,000  gallons  a  day,  was  commenced  in 
1855,  and  opened  in  1859.  Its  ruling  gradient 
is  10  inches  in  the  mile. 

The  Glasgow  water  supply  was  increased 
subsequently  by  a  new  aqueduct,  which  fol- 
lows much  the  same  course  as  the  old,  but 
has  a  daily  capacity  greater  by  about  20,000,000 
gallons. 

A  more    ambitious    scheme   than  that  de- 
scribed thus  briefly  was  one  set  on  foot  in  the 
late  'seventies  by  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool 
for  supplying  that  great  city 
Ine  Vyrnwy-  ^j^j^^    water    from    either    the 

c,  .  Lake  District  of  Cumberland 

Scheme. 

or  from  the  valleys  of  North 
Wales.  It  was  decided  to  impound  the 
Vyrnwy,  a  tributary  of  the  Severn,  in  Rad  or- 
shire,  by  means  of  a  masonry  dam,  and 
conduct  the  waters  of  the  reservoir  so  formed 
through  an  aqueduct  68 J  miles  long  to 
reservoirs  at  Prescot,  8  J  miles  east  of  the 
Liverpool  Town  Hall.  During  1879  the  late 
Mr.  G.  F.  Deacon,  M.Inst.C.E.,  the  engineer 
in  charge  of  the  works,  completed  the  surveys 
and  prepared  the  Parliamentary  plans.  In 
1880  the  Act  conferring  the  necessary  powers 
received  the  Royal  Assent,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  operations  commenced. 

A    site    for    the    great    masonry    dam    im- 
pounding Lake  Vyrnwy,  which  at  high-water 
level  contains  more  than   12,000,000,000  gal- 
lons, was  selected  at  the  crest 

^  ^        ^   of  a  natural  dam  formed  across 
Dam. 

the    bed    of    the    valley    by 

glacial  action  at  some  far  distant  period. 
The  dam  is  1,172  feet  long  at  the  crest,  161 
feet  high  above  the  lowest  point  in  the  founda- 
tions, and  127  feet  thick  (maximum)  at  the 
» base.  It  contains  260,000  cubic  yards  of 
masonry,  and  weighs  679,000  tons.  Across 
the  top  runs  a  fine  carriage-way  on  arches, 
through  nineteen  of  which  passes  all  surplus 


L      AN     C    A     S     t^    I    R    C 


Warrington 
6 


Cynynion  Tunnel  ^*  Oswescry  Q: 

1; 


,—'^2^^^t  -ffi/rnont 


BUI  arte 

ftesi 


0      It 


<0 


SKETCH    MAP    SHOWING    THE    COURSE    OF    THE 

LIVERPOOL    AQUEDUCT. 

Tunnels  are  indicated  by  broken  lines. 

water  in  times  of  heavy  rain,  and  falls  in 
an  almost  unbroken  sheet  down  the  face  of 
the  dam  into  the  valley  below.  To  ensure 
a  secure  foundation  the  bed  had  to  be 
trenched  to  firm  rock,  and  during  this  process 
huge  masses  of  rock,  weighing  in  some  cases 
hundreds  of  tons,  were  blasted  and  removed. 
The  interior  rubble  work  and  the  facings  of 
rectangular  stones  were  built  up  with  the 
greatest  possible  care  round  large  discharge 
culverts.  At  each  end  the  masonry  is  tied 
into  the  native  rock. 


GREAT    BRITISH    DAMS    AND    AQUEDUCTS. 


181 


The  Water 
Tower. 


Water  enters  the  aqueduct  at  an 
ornamental  tower,  170  feet  high, 
which  rises  100  feet  above  high-water 
level  at  a  point  in  the 
lake  about  three-quar- 
ters of  a  mile  from  the 
dam.  Outside  the  tower  are  two  sets 
of  six  vertical  tubes,  and  inside  two 
sets  of  four  similar  vertical  tubes, 
each  9  feet  long,  placed  end  to  end 
and  moving  in  guides.  At  the  bot- 
tom the  sets  are  connected  by  a  pipe. 
Water  can  be  admitted  at  any  joint 
by  raising  the  pipes  above,  a  system 
which  enables  the  supply  to  be  drawn 
from  near  the  surface,  where  the 
water  is  purest,  whatever  be  the  level 
of  the  lake.  Within  the  tower  the 
water  is  strained  through  wire  gauze 
having  10,000  meshes  to  the  square 
inch,  and  then  passes  through  valves 
into  a  concrete  culvert  leading  to  the 
Hirnant  tunnel,  with  which  begins 
the  aqueduct  proper. 

The  aqueduct  is  made  up  entirely 
of  tunnel  and  syphon  sections.  The 
tunnels,  which  have  an  aggregate 
length  of  only  about 
3 1  miles,  are  designed 
to  carry  at  least 
40,000,000  gallons  a  day.  Two  lines 
of  42-inch  pipes  have  been  laid,  and  a  third 
will  be  added  when  required.  On  the  hydraulic 
gradient  are  five  balancing  reservoirs — at  Pare 
Uchaf  (9§  miles  from  the  lake),  Oswestry  (18 
miles),  Malpas  (36i  miles),  Cotebrook  (48  miles), 
and  Norton  (59  miles).  The  Oswestry  reservoir 
is  formed  by  an  earthen  embankment,  able 
to  impound  46,000,000  odd  gallons.  Beyond 
the  reservoir  are  filter  beds  and  a  clean  water 
reservoir,  through  which  the  water  passes  on 
its  way  to  the  next  syphon.  Between  the 
Cotebrook  and  the  Prescot  reservoirs,  a  dis- 
tance of  20  miles,  the  ground  nowhere  reaches 
the   hydraulic    gradient.      At     Norton     Hill, 


The 

Aqueduct. 


tS.  >         jM*? 


THE    WATER    TOWER   AT   LAKE    VYRNWY. 


{Phofo,  J.  Madardy.) 


It  rises  60  feet  above  high- water  level,  and  has  a  total  height  of 
170  feet. 


about  midway,  it  was  decided  to  construct  a 
reservoir.  As  the  surface  lay  110  feet  below 
the  gradient,  a  handsome  tower  of  red  sand- 
stone was  built  to  the  required  level.  It 
supports  an  enormous  circular  tank,  80  feet 
in  diameter  and  31  feet  deep  at  the  centre. 
The  basin-shaped  steel  bottom  has  a  depth 
of  21 1  feet,  the  upper  cast-iron  portion  a 
height  of  10 J  feet.  The  weight  of  the  tank 
and  its  contents  (650,000  gallons)  is  borne  by 
rollers  resting  on  a  cast-iron  bed-plate  sup- 
ported by  the  coping  of  the  tower.  This 
arrangement  allows  for  the  expansive  and 
contractive  movements  of  the  metal. 


182 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


INLET   END   OF   TUNNEL   AT   CRAIG    GOGH    DAM. 


{P/ioto,  by  courtesy  of  Masarti.  J.  Mansergh  and  Son-f.) 


The  longest  tunnel  on  the  route  is  the 
Hirnant,  at  the  lake  end.  This  is  3,900 
yards  long,  has  a  circular  section  with  a 
minimum  diameter  of  7  feet,  and  falls  rather 
more  than  2  feet  in  the  mile.  The  Cynynion 
tunnel  (1,520  yards)  and  Llanforda  tunnel 
(1,640  yards)  are  separated  only  by  a  short 
183-foot  syphon. 

The  driving  of  the  fourth  and  last  tunnel, 

that   carrying    the   pipes    under    the    Mersey, 

provided  the  greatest  of  the  difficulties  with 

which    the    engineers    had    to 

Tunnelling  contend.  This  tunnel,  which, 
as  Mr.  Deacon  has  pointed 
out,  was  the  first  ever  con- 
structed by  means  of  a  shield  and  compressed 
air  under  a  tidal  or  other  river  through  entirely 
loose  materials,  is  lined  with  cast-iron  segments 
bolted  together.  A  shaft  was  sunk  in  each 
bank  of  the  river,  and  the  tunnel  driven  and 


under  the 
Mersey. 


lined  for  57  feet  at  the  Cheshire  end.  The 
first  contractors  then  retired.  Their  suc- 
cessors commenced  a  fresh  tunnel  at  a  rather 
higher  level,  and  succeeded  in  driving  it  for 
61  yards.  Then  they  too  were  defeated  by 
the  looseness  of  the  river  bed  and  the  frequent 
inroads  of  water.  Finally,  Mr.  Deacon  took 
the  matter  in  hand,  repaired  the  shield,  and 
completed  the  tunnel  in  four  and  a  half  months, 
so  placing  to  his  credit  a  memorable  achieve- 
ment. The  tunnel  has  an  inside  diameter  of 
10  feet,  and  can  accommodate  three  lines  of 
32-inch  pipes. 

As  the  difficulties  at  the  Mersey  caused  seri- 
ous delay  in  delivering  the 
Vyrnwy  water  to  the  Liverpool 
reservoirs,  it  was  decided  to 
effect  a  temporary  connection 
while  the  tunnel  was  being 
completed.    Mr.  Deacon  therefore  had  made 


Temporary 

Connection 

across  the 

Mersey. 


GREAT    BRITISH    DAMS    AND    AQUEDUCTS. 


183 


number  of  12-inch  steel  pipes  furnished  with 
flexible  joints,  and  having  valves  at  one 
point  in  the  circumference.  An  800-foot 
length  of  this  piping  was  fitted  together  on 
sliding  ways  in  a  trench  on  the  Lancashire 
side  of  the  river.  Both  ends  were  plugged 
to  exclude  water. 

When  all  was  ready,  steam  winches  on  the 
Cheshire  side,  hauling  on  steel  cables  attached 
to  the  near  end,  drew  the  pipe  off  the  ways 
and  across  the  river.  Within  an  hour  of  the 
start  the  plugs  had  been  withdrawn,  con- 
nections had  been  made  with  the  pipe  line 
at  both  ends,  and  water  was  flowing  through 
the  pipes.  Then  the  Lancashire  end  was 
plugged  to  allow  the  water  to  issue  at  high 
pressure  through  the  valves — the  pipes  had 
been  so  arranged  that  this  should  be  at  the 
lowest  side — and  scour  a  trench  for  the  pipes 
in  a  bank  of  sand  and  silt  at  mid-stream. 
This  ingenious  method  of  trenching  proved 
very  successful. 

The  area  of  Lake  Vyrnwy  is  1,121  acres. 
Tunnels  now  connect  the  reservoir  with  the 
Marchnant  and  Cowny  Rivers,  forming  gather- 
ing grounds  of  27,000  acres  extent. 

In  1892,  almost  exactly  eleven  years  after 
the  laying  of  the  memorial  stone  on  which  is 
recorded  the  commencement  of  the  works, 
the  undertaking  was  declared  open  by  the 
Duke  of  Connaught. 

Prior  to  the  opening  of  the  Thirlmere 
Aqueduct  in  1894,  Manchester  depended  en- 
tirely for  its  w^ater  on  the  supply — 25,000,000 
gallons  a  day — drawn  from  the  river  Etherow, 
at  Longdendale,  18  miles  east  of  the  city. 

As  early  as    1875  it  became  evident  that 

measures   must   be   taken   for   tapping    some 

other  source,  in  order  to  pre- 

^*\.  ***r'"^f '*^' "^^^^  *^®  demand  overtaking 
the  supply.  The  Corporation 
decided  to  obtain  water  from 
Thirlmere,  one  of  the  Cumberland  lakes,  into 
which  drains  an  area  subject  to  a  very  high 


annual  rainfall.  The  surface  of  the  watershed 
being  free  from  peat,  the  water  that  flows  off 
is  well  suited  for  human  use.  An  Act  of 
Parliament  was  obtained  in  1879,  authorizing 
the  construction  of  a  dam  across  the  northern 
end  of  the  lake  to  create  a  reservoir  that 
should  supply  Manchester  with  a  maximum 
of  50,000,000  gallons  a  day  for  160  days 
without  replenishment  by  rain,  and  the  con- 
struction of  an  aqueduct  able  to  pass  this 
amount  of  water. 

The  dam,  which  was  begun  in  1890,  is  857 
feet  long  at  the  top,  and  has  a  greatest  height 
above  the  foundation  of  104  feet  6  inches. 
At  present  it  increases  the  depth  of  the  lake 
by  a  maximum  of  35  feet,  but  if  raised  to  its 
full  projected  height,  will  add  another  15  feet, 
and  produce  a  storage  capacity  of  8,135,000,000 
gallons. 

A  small  hill  divides  the  dam  into  two 
portions.  Through  this  hill  was  driven  a 
tunnel  for  the  discharge  of  surplus  and  com- 
pensation water.  No  water  passes  over  the 
dam  itself.  It  may  be  added  that  the  area 
of  the  lake  has  been  increased  from  330  to 
690  acres  by  the  creation  of  the  dam,  and 
that,  as  a  consequence  of  the  rise  of  water 
level,  an  entirely  new  coach  road  has  had  to  be 
built  along  the  west  bank  of  the  lake,  in  addi- 
tion to  a  road  along  the  crest  of  the  dam 
to  connect  the  two  sides  of  the  valley. 

The  aqueduct  is  made  up  of  13  miles  1,517 
yards  of  tunnel,  37  miles  120  yards  of  cut- 
and-cover — all  for  50,000,000  gallons  a  day — 
and  45  miles  of  syphons.     For 


The  Thirlmere 
Aqueduct. 


Manchester 
Scheme. 


the  two  syphons   nearest  the 

lake    three    lines    of    48-inch 

pipes  are  specified,  and  for  the  other  syphons 

five  lines  of  40-inch  piping,  except  in  the  part 

of  the  aqueduct  south  of  Little  Hulton,  where 

the  gradient  is  steeper,  and  36-inch  pipes  are 

able  to  deal  with  the  flow. 

Aqueduct  pipes  are  generally  of  cast  iron. 
Where  exceptionally  high  pressures  have  to  be 
borne — as  at  the  lowest  point  of  a  deep  syphon 


CUT-A.nL--uovER    construction   in    progress,    ELAN-BIRMINGHAM    AQl  EULUT. 

The  bottom  and  part  of  the  side  walls  have  been  built. 
LOWERma   A   42-INCH   PIPE   INTO   TRENCH,    RIVER  WYE    SYPHON. 

{Photos,  by  courtesy  of  Messrs.  J.  3Iansergh  and  Sons.) 


GREAT    BRITISH    DAMS    AND    AQUEDUCTS. 


185 


Cast-iron 
Pipes. 


— or  the  pipe  is  of  unusually  large  diameter, 
steel  is  used.  According  to  the  duty  which  it 
may  have  to  do,  a  48-inch  cast 
pipe — about  the  limit  diameter 
for  this  type— varies  in  thick- 
ness from  1  inch  to  1|  inches.  A  pipe  is  cast 
socket  end  downwards,  so  that  the  densest 
metal  may  be  at  the  part  liable  to  fracture 
during  the  caulking  of  the  lead  at  the  joint. 
Bars  are  cast  at  the  same  time  as  a  pipe  and 
numbered  similarly,  and  subjected  to  certain 
standard  weight  tests.  If  the  bars  do  not 
come  up  to  requirements,  the  pipe  to  which 
they  refer  is  rejected.  If  the  pipe  passes 
this  test,  and  also  those  for  dimension,  uni- 
formity of  thickness,  ability  to  withstand  a 
pressure  considerably  greater  than  it  will  have 
to  bear  in  the  aqueduct,  soundness  (made  by 


inspection  and  by  rapping  it  with  a  hammer), 

and  weight,   it  is   heated  and  dipped  bodily 

into    an    anti-corrosive    preparation.      When 

this  coating  has  dried,  the  pipe  is  ready  for 

laying.     Full  records  are  kept  of  every  pipe 

for  reference  purposes. 

The  commonest  form  of  cast  pipe  has  a  socket 

at  one  end  and  a  spigot  at  the  other.     A  spigot 

has  an  external  diameter    somewhat    smaller 

than  the  internal  diameter  of  a 

socket,  so  that  when  a  spigot    ^^^'^"S  the 
.     .  ,    .  ,  ,  ,  Joints. 

IS  mserted  mto  the  socket  of 

the  next  pipe  an  annular  space  shall  be  left 

between  the  two  for  yarn   packing   and    for 

lead,  which    is  run  in,   allowed   to  cool,  and 

caulked,  or  compressed,  with  a  special  tool. 

The  socket  is  recessed  inside  so  that  the  lead 

may  resist  any  force  tending  to  draw  the  two 


CULVERT   IN   THE   CAREQ-DDU   SUBMERGED   DAM,    ELAN   RIVER  ;    DOWNSTREAM   FACE. 

{Photo,  by  courtesy  of  Messrs.  J.  Mansergh  and  Sons.) 


THE   HUGE   STEEL   PIPE,    8|   FEET   IN   DIAMETER,    FOR   THE    BIRMINGHAM   AQUEUUOi    Al    AiAi3S-Y-6ELLI. 

This  pipe  is  able  to  pass  the  full  quantity  for  which  the  aqueduct  is  designed,  75,000,000  gallons  a  day. 
THREE   PIPES   IN   TRENCH,    HOPTON  BROOK   SYPHON,    ELAN-BIRMINGHAM   AQUEDUCT. 

The  left-hand  pipe  is  an  overflow  pipe. 

{Photos,  by  courtesy  of  Messrs.  J.  Mansergh  and  Sons.) 


GREAT    BRITISH    DAMS    AND    AQUEDUCTS. 


187 


pipes  apart.  In 
some  cases  a 
wrought  -  iron 
ring  is  shrunk 
over  the  socket 
to  assist  in  pre- 
venting fracture 
during  caulking. 
In  moderately 
flat  country  cy- 
lindrical socket- 
less  pipes,  joined 
by  collars  em- 
bracing the  ad- 
jacent ends  of 
two  pipes,  are 
used.  For  nego- 
tiating horizon- 
tal or  vertical 
angles  and  curves 
special  angle 
castings  become 
necessary.  On 
severe  slopes 
pipes  must  be 
anchored  to  pre- 
vent downhill 
movement,  and 
be  duly  supported  on  the  outside  of  curves 
against  outward  thrust.  In  this  country  it 
is  customary  to  cover  water-pipes  with  at 
least  2J  feet  of  earth  as  protection  against 
that  arch-enemy  of  the  hydraulic  engineer, 
Jack  Frost. 

However   carefully   a   syphon   may   be   de- 
signed and  laid,  there  is  always  the  possibility 
of  a  burst  occurring  in  it.     Were  such  a  vast 
volume  of  water  as  is  carried 
Automatic      ^^   ^  j^^^^  aqueduct   allowed 

to  escape  unchecked,  the  re- 
sults, apart  from  the  great  waste,  might  be 
disastrous.  A  syphon  is  therefore  furnished 
with  a  number  of  valves,  under  the  control 
of  the  walksmen  who  patrol  the  line,  whereby 
an   outburst   may   be   restrained.     A   further 


SKETCH  MAP  SHOWING  COURSE 
OF  THE  THIRLMERE  -  MAN- 
CHESTER AQUEDUCT. 


safeguard  is  provided  by  valves  which  auto- 
matically cut  off  the  supply  in  the  event  of  a 
rupture.  In  a  paper  read  before  the  Insti- 
tution of  Civil  Engineers,  Mr.  G.  H,  Hill, 
M.Inst.C.E.,  describes  the  mechanisms  of  this 
class  which  protect  the  Thirlmere  Aqueduct. 

At  the  north — that  is,  the  upper — end  of 
each  syphon  is  a  chaml)er  divided  trans- 
versely by  a  wall.  The  southern  part  of  the 
chamber  is  subdivided  by  partitions  into  a 
number  of  float  wells,  one  for  each  of  the  pipe 
lines  of  which  the  syphon  will  ultimately  be 
made  up.  The  north  compartment  has  com- 
munication with  each  float  chamber  through 
a  pipe,  the  ends  of  which  are  turned  up  so 
that  the  lips  are  horizontal.  Over  the  northern 
orifice  of  the  pipe  a  bell-shaped  vessel,  open 
end  downwards,  is  suspended  from  a  lever 
18  feet  long  pivoted  at  the  northern  end, 
and  carrying  at  the  other  a  large  metal  float. 
Should  a  burst  occur  in  the  syphon  pipe  the 
water  in  the  corresponding  float  well  sinks, 
and  allows  the  bell  in  the  northern  chamber 
to  seat  itself  over  the  entrance  to  the  com- 
munication pipe,  and  so  cut  off  the  supply. 
Any  excess  of  water  from  the  aqueduct  is 
discharged  through  a  channel  at  a  level  below 
the  top  of  the  cross  wall. 

Another  type  of  automatic  valve  is  titted 
at  intermediate  points  in  the  northern  legs  of 
the  longer  syphons.  A  disc  valve,  which, 
when    turned    into    a    vertical 

position,  seals    the   waterwav,  ^.    ^^^^^^^f 
:  .    ,  "    Throttle  Valve. 

IS  carried  on  trunnions  project- 
ing through  stuffing  boxes  in  the  sides  of  the 
valve  box.  On  the  ends  of  the  trunnions  are 
pulleys,  to  which  heavy  weights  are  attached 
by  chains.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the 
valve  lies  in  a  horizontal  position,  allowing 
the  water  to  pass  at  its  normal  velocity. 

Upstream  of  the  valve  a  circular  plate,  on 
the  end  of  a  rod  pivoted  in  an  air  chamber 
above  the  valve  box,  projects  into  the  water- 
way. Should  a  burst  occur,  the  increased 
velocity  and  pressure  of  the  water  causes  thif» 


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GREAT    BRITISH    DAMS     AXD    AOrKDrCTS. 


189 


plat©  to  move  and  release  a  trigger.  The 
weights  rotate  the  pulley  at  a  speed  governed 
by  a  hydraulic  cataract,  and  bring  the  disc 
valve  slowly  into  a  vertical  position,  checking 
the  flow  of  water. 

The  third  class  of  automatic  valves  to  be 
noticed  are  those  in  the  southern  legs  of  the 
syphons.  These  valves  have  doors  which 
open  only  in  the  direction  of  normal  flow, 
and  close  against  their  seatings  if  a  rupture 
causes  the  water  to  flow  backwards  toward 
the  lowest  part  of  the  syphon. 


The  scheme,  originated  and  carried  out  by 
the  late  Mr.  James  Mansergh,  Past  President 
Inst.C.E.,  for  which  Parliamentary  powers 
were  obtained  in  1892 — with  supplements  at 
later  dates — included  the  construction  of  a 
dam  on  the  Elan  below  the  confluence  of  the 
two  streams,  of  two  more  higher  up  the  Elan 
Valley,  and  three  in  the  Claerwen  Valley,  to 
impound  six  reservoirs  forming  two  flights 
of  gigantic  water  stairs  up  the  valleys  in 
question.  The  watershed  acquired  has  an  area 
of  over  70  square  miles,  and  an  average  annual 


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SKETCH   MAP   SHOWING    ROUTE    OP   ELAN-BIRMINGHAM    AQUEDUCT. 


At  the  present  time  two  pipe  lines,  convey- 
ing 20,000,000  gallons  a  day  from  Thirlmere 
to  Manchester,  have  been  completed,  and  ar- 
rangements are  in  progress  for  laying  a  third 
line.  The  scheme  was  prepared  by  the  late 
Mr.  J.  F.  Latrob©  Bateman,  F.R.S.  (the 
engineer  of  the  Longdendale  works),  in  con- 
nection with  Mr.  G.  H.  Hill,  who  carried  it 
out  on  behalf  of  the  Corporation.  The  cost 
of  the  watershed  and  lake,  of  all  necessary 
way-leaves,  of  the  construction  of  tunnel  and 
cut-and-cover  sections,  and  of  two  pipe  lines, 
amounted  to  about  £3,500,000.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  total  cost  of  the  completed 
scheme  will  be  £5,000,000. 


rainfall  of  61;^  inches.  At  36  inches  per 
annum  the  fall  would  yield  about  100,000,000 
gallons  a  day — more  than  ample  to  meet  all 
requirements. 

At  the  time  of  writing,  all  the  dams  in  the 
Elan  Valley  have  been  completed,  and  the 
foundations  laid  for  one  in  the  Claerwen. 

The  lowest  of  the  dams,  the  Caban  Coch, 
is  566  feet  long  at  the  top,  122  feet  above 
the  river  bed,  and  122i  feet  thick  at  the  base. 
It  impounds  8,000,000,000 
gallons  of  water,  and  forms  a 


The  Caban 
Coch  Dam. 


The    next    great    British    aqueduct    to    be 

noticed  is  that  commenced  in 

'^^^  1 893  and  opened  in  1 904,  which 

Birmingham    .    .  /    ««      m      ^ 

Aaueduct       brings  water  73  miles  from  the 

Elan  and  Claerwen  valleys,  in 

Wales,  to  Birmingham.    The  two  rivers  named 

are  tributaries  of  the  Wye. 


lake  which  extends  some  dis- 
tance up  both  valleys.  Below  the  dam  is  a 
power  -  station,  wherein  the  compensation 
water  let  out  into  the  river  is  utilized  to 
generate  electricity  for  use  on  the  filter  beds 
and  for  lighting  purposes,  and  to  operate  a 
hydraulic  accumulator  for  working  the  valves 
at  the  dam  and  at  the  inle.t  to  the  aqueduct. 

One  and  a  half  miles  farther  wp  the  valley 
is  a  submerged  dam — not  referred  to  previ- 
ously— which    rises    to    an    elevation    40    feet 


190 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


A  Submerged 
Dam. 


below  high- water  level.  This  dam  divides  the 
contents  of  the  reservoir  into  three  portions  : 
a  top  slice,  40  feet  thick,  cov- 
ering the  whole  area  of  the 
reservoir,  and  available  for 
compensation  water  or  for  withdrawal  through 
the  aqueduct ;  the  water  below  a  horizontal 
line  drawn  from  the  crest  of  the  submerged 
dam  to  the  Caban  Coch,  for  compensation 
purposes  only  ;  and  that  impounded  by  the 
submerged  dam  independently  of  the  Caban 
Coch,  The  aqueduct,  it  should  be  mentioned, 
has  its  intake  immediately  above  this  dam. 

The  next  of  the  series,  the  Pen-y-Gareg,  is 
123  feet  high,  and  creates  a  reservoir  of 
1,320,000,000   gallons  ;     the   third,   the   Craig 


Goch,     is     120     feet     high,     and     impounds 
2,000,000,000  gallons.     When  the  other  three 
dams  have  been  built  the  total 
storage   capacity   of    the   sys-  Pen-y-Qareg 

tem  will   total   17,960,000,000    /"^  ^^^^ 

'       '       '  Goch  Dams. 

gallons,  or   about   one   and   a 

half  times   the   quantity  of  water  impounded 

in   Lake   Vyrnwy.     All   surplus  water   passes 

over  the  crests  of  the  dams,  forming  in  flood 

seasons  a  series  of  magnificent  waterfalls,  set 

in  most  beautiful  surroundings. 

The  reservoirs  cover  the  sites  of  two  houses 

associated  with  the  poet  Shelley,  a  church,  a 

chapel,  a  school,  and  a  number  of  cottages. 

All  of  these  buildings  were  demolished,  and 

most  of  them  replaced  by  new  structures  on 


PEN-Y-GAKEG   DAM,    ON   THE   ELAN   RIVER.      LENGTH,    417^   FEET  ;    HEIGHT,    123   FEET.  {Photo,  F.  MUnir. 


GREAT    BRITISH    DAMS    AND    AQUEDUCTS. 


191 


higher  ground.  In  this  connection  we  may 
note  that  Lake  VjTnwy  covers  the  site  of  the 
village  of  Llanwddyn,  with  its  church,  school, 
three  chapels,  and  forty  cottages. 

The  aqueduct  consists  of  23 1  miles  of  cut- 
and-cover  in  nineteen  sections,    12|  miles  of 
tunnel,  and  about  36|  miles  of  syphon.     Tun- 
nels   and    cut-and-cover    con- 
The  Aqueduct. 

duits  have  a  normal  internal 

section  8  feet  high,  98  inches  wide  at  the 
springing  of  the  arch,  and  86  inches  wide  at  the 
invert.  They  are  lined  throughout  with  blue 
brick,  and  are  able  to  pass  a  maximum  of 
75,000,000  gallons  a  day.  The  syphons  will 
ultimately  have  six  lines  of  42-inch  pipes  ; 
at  present  only  two  lines  have  been  laid. 
The  total  fall  on  the  73  miles  is  169  feet,  or 
about  2|  feet  to  the  mile.  Tlie  gradient  of 
the  syphons  ranges  between  1  in  1,760  feet 
and  1  in  1,570  feet.  To  some  readers  it  may 
be  a  matter  for  surprise  that  so  very  gentle 
a  slope  should  suffice  for  an  aqueduct  which 
has  to  deliver  huge  quantities  of  water  through 
comparatively  restricted  channels. 

On  leaving  the  lake  the  water  passes  through 
the  Foel  tunnel  to  the  Elan  filter  beds,  where 
it  is  strained  and  purified.  The  next  15  miles 
are  in  cut-and-cover,  interrupted  by  four 
short  syphons  and  two  short  tunnels.  Near 
Dolau  it  enters  a  tunnel  4  J  miles  long.  Emerg- 
ing from  this,  it  traverses  2  miles  of  conduit, 
a  short  syphon,  and  the  2J-mile  Knighton 
tunnel.  A  m.ile  of  conduit  is  succeeded  by  the 
Downton  syphon,  9^  miles  long,  which  at  two 
intermediate  points  rises  to  the  hydraulic 
gradient,  and  twice  crosses  the  river  Teme. 
The  next  4  miles  are  mostly  in  cut-and-cover. 
Then  comes  the  big  Teme  syphon,  4|  miles 
long,  with  a  greatest  hydraulic  head  of  444 
feet,  and  a  series  of  short  conduit  and  tunnel 
sections  leading  to  the  Severn  syphon,  which 
covers  17^  miles.  At  the  point  where  they 
cross  the  river  Severn,  over  a  fine  arch  bridge 
of  150  feet  span,  the  pipes  are  subjected  to  a 
hydraulic  head  of  540  feet,  the  greatest  on  any 


British  aqueduct.  From  the  Birmingham  end 
of  the  syphon  the  water  is  led  to  the  Frankley 
reservoirs  and  filter  beds  through  5 J  miles  of 
conduit  sj'phon  and  tunnel.  The  receiving 
reservoir  is  semicircular  in  plan,  has  an  area 
of  25  acres,  and  holds  2o(».(»o0,000  gallons. 

The  Derwent  Valley  waterworks  are  of  par- 
ticular interest,  as  the  first  great  scheme  for 
affording  a  supply  to  a  combination  of  large 
towns.     The   cities   of   Leices- 
ter, Derby,  Sheffield,  and  Not-        Derwent 
tingham  all  wanted  water  from   -j^   .  . 

the  watershed  of  the  Derwent. 
in  the  autumn  of  1898  the  first  three  de- 
posited separate  plans,  and  applied  for 
Parliamentary  powers  to  carry  them  out. 
Nottingham,  and  the  counties  of  Nottingham 
and  Derby,  also  petitioned  for  a  share  of  the 
water.  The  Parliamentary  Committee  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  matter  decided 
that  all  the  parties  concerned  should  unite 
to  carry  out  works  to  obtain  a  supply  divis- 
ible among  the  claimants  in  certain  propor- 
tions ;  and  powers  were  granted  for  creating 
six  reservoirs  in  three  'nstalments  in  the  valley 
of  the  Derwent.  The  first  instalment,  the 
Howden  and  Derwent  reservoirs,  was  taken 
in  hand  in  1900.  As  a  preliminary  to  building 
the  dams,  a  railway  seven  miles  long  was  con- 
structed through  difficult  country  from  Bam- 
ford,  on  the  Midland  Railway,  to  the  site 
of  the  Howden  dam,  where  a  village  was  built 
to  accommodate  the  workmen  and  their 
children.  The  Derwent  dam  has  a  length  of 
1,110  feet  at  the  water-line,  rises  114  feet 
above  the  bed  of  the  stream,  and  is  169  feet 
thick  at  the  widest  part  of  the  foundations. 
The  masonry  of  the  dam 
measures  360,000  cubic  yards, 
and  is  computed  to  weigh 
630,000  tons.  As  the  rock  leaked  at  the 
level  of  the  foundations,  the  engineers  had 
a  trench  6  feet  wide  cut  down  into  the  rock 
and  filled  with  masonry  to  form  an  imperme- 


A  Huge 
Dam. 


192 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


The  main  aqueduct  runs  from 
the  Howden  reservoir  to  the 
service  reservoir  at  Ambergate, 
whence  the  water  is  distributed 
to  the  towns  of  Derby,  Leices- 
ter, and  Nottingham.  In  its 
length  of  30  miles  there  are  4 
miles  of  tunnel  6  J  feet  in  diam- 
eter, 8^  miles  of  cut-and-cover, 
and  17A  miles  of  45-inch  steel 
pipe.  The  Leicester  pipe  is  33 
inches,  the  Nottingham  pipe  29 
inches,  in  diameter.  The  branch 
between  the  service  reservoir  at 
Ambergate  and  Sheffield  includes 
a  tunnel  7,623  yards  long.  The 
cost  of  carrying  out  the  scheme 
is  estimated  at  £6,000,000  ster- 
ling. 

Another  important  scheme  is 
that  which  will  supply  Brad- 
ford with  the  water  of  the 
Nidd,  stored  up 
by  a  huge  dam 
built  across  the 
river  valley  at  a  point  32  miles 

THREE   PIPE    LINES    OF   THE    BIRMINGHAM    AQUEDUCT  AT   THE  CROSSING  distant     irom     the     tOWn.         lllC 

OVER     THE     STAFFORDSHIRE     AND     WORCESTERSHIRE     CANAL,     NEAR  aqUCduct,  which    COSt    OVer    half 

COOKLEY.                            {Photo,  bij  courtesy  of  Messrs.  J.  Mansergh  and  Sons.)  g^   mUlion    sterling,  involved    the 

The  bridge  is  on  the  hydraulic  arch  principle.    Only  two  of  the  three  pipes  are  i   •    •             fa.         *1            f     +            1 

in  use  at  present.     At  some  river  and  stream  crossings  the  third  pipe  was  built  driving     01     D     miles     Ol     tunnel 

in  at  the  outset. 


Bradford's 
Supply. 


able  curtain  extending  beneath  the  dam  from 
end  to  end,  and  terminating  in  the  hillsides. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  curtain  wall  to  the 
dam's  crest  the  overall  height  at  the  centre  of 
the  dam  is  212  feet. 


—  one  tunnel,  that  through 
the  Greenhow  Hill,  being  well  over  a  mile 
long.  As  on  the  Derwent  and  Claerwen, 
other  dams  will  be  built  and  more  water 
impounded  when  the  demand  comes  for  an 
increase  in  the  supply. 


[Note. — Thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  Walter  Mansergh,  M.Inst.C.E.,  and  Mr.  Martin 
Deacon,  Assoc.M.Inst.C.E.,  for  assistance  given  in  connection  with  this  article; 
to  Messrs.  James  Mansergh  and  Sons  for  supi^lying  a  number  of  the  illustra- 
tions ;  and  to  the  Manchester,  Birminghayn,  and  Liverpool  Corporations  for 
permission  to  reproduce  the  sketch  irvaps  of  the  aqueducts.^ 


THE    TOWER    BRIDGE. 


PART    OK    THE    ROOF    OF    THE    HONOR    OAK    RESERVOIR,    SHOWING    ARCHES. 


{Fholo,  7'ojHCal. 


HOW    LONDON   GETS   ITS    WATER. 


BY   THE    EDITOR. 


This  Article  describes  the  development  of  the  great  system  of  Water  Works  by 
means  of  which  over  seven  million  people  are  supplied  daily  with  more 
than  thirty  gallons  each  of  wholesome,  pure  water. 


IN  previous  articles  have  been  described 
the  great  engineering  works  carried  out 
to  give  New  York  and  some  of  our 
greatest  British  cities  an  abundant  supply  of 
water.  We  have  seen  how  the  authorities 
responsible  for  the  health  of  these  cities  have 
gone  far  afield  to  draw  upon  the  resource,;  of 
a  suitable  gathering  ground. 

It  may  seem  strange,  in  view  of  these  f;  .cts, 
that  "  Water "  London,  the  greatest  of  all 
centres  of  human  life,  with  its  514  square 
miles,  and  its  population  of 
Ti't  ^.^^^  o^^^  7,000,000  people,  should 
be  able  to  derive  most  of  the 
good  water  that  it  needs  from 
within  the  area  supplied.  From  the  Thames, 
turbid  and  brackish  as  it  passes  through  the 
heart  of  the  city,  nearly  130,000,000  gallons 
may  be  drawn  daily  at  points  just  inside  and 

(1,408) 


of  a  Huge 
Population. 


outside  the  boundary  line.*  Wells  sunk  into 
the  chalk  that  underlies  the  metropolis  and  its 
suburbs  yield  over  44,000,000  gallons  in  the 
twenty-four  hours,  and  during  the  same 
period  the  sources  of  the  river  Lee  supply 
some  50,000,000  gallons. 

It  has  indeed  been  a  huge  task  to  so  or- 
ganize and  develop  the  supply  that  every  in- 
dividual of  the  7,000,000  men,  women,  and 
children  shall  have  on  the 
average  nearly  32  gallons  for 
daily  use.  Every  day  1,000,000  tons  of  water 
have  to  be  pumped  from  wells  and  rivers  into 
reservoirs,  whence  the  flow  descends  by  gravity 
through  many   thousands  of   miles  of  pipes, 

*  The  Metropolitan  Water  Board  has  an  unrestricted  right 
to  take  this  quantity  from  the  river,  together  with  an  addi- 
tional 35,000,000  gallons  daily  for  the  Staines  reservoir, 
or,  by  consent  of  the  Local  GoTeniuient  Board,  45,000,000 
gallons. 

13  voi*  m. 


Figures. 


194 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


spreading  like  an  underground  network  in  all 
directions,  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  build- 
ings. As  mere  numerals  fail  to  convey  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  quantity  supplied,  we 
may  add  that  it  would  fill  a  canal  113  miles 
long,  20  feet  wide,  and  3  feet  deep.  To  carry 
it,  would  be  required  a  train  of  203,600  trucks, 
occupying  more  than  800  miles  of  track,  each 
truck  containing  five  tons'  weight  of  the 
liquid.  A  year's  supply  would  form  a  lake 
about  3f  miles  square  and  36  feet  deep — of 
sufficient  area  and  depth  to  give  anchorage 
for  all  the  battleships  in  the  world. 

The  early  history  of  London's  water  supply 
is  naturally  very  vague  and  indistinct.  Occa- 
sionally there  come  to  light  pieces  of  the  lead 
or  earthenware  pipes  which. 
Early  History  jjja,jiy  centuries  ago,  distrib- 
of  the  London      ,    ,        ,  -.i  •     .i  n      r 

^^T  ^  c^  1  uted  water  within  the  walls  or 
Water  Supply. 

Roman  Londinium.  In  those 
days  plenty  of  clear,  unsullied  streams  flowed 
through  the  area  now  covered  by  the  great 
capital,  and  the  inhabitants  had  no  need  to  go 
far  for  their  supply.  Such  also  was  the  case 
as  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  ;  but  when 
Edward  I.  was  king  the  burgesses  began  to 
be  exercised  by  the  increasing  pollution  of  the 
streams.  In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  leaden  pipes  were  laid  down  between 
Tyburn  springs  and  various  points  of  delivery 
to  the  public  in  the  city.  A  great  conduit 
was  built  subsequently  from  the  same  source, 
through  Charing  Cross  and  the  Strand  to 
Fleet  Street.  As  the  pipes  were  in  many 
places  above  ground  and  exposed  to  the  air, 
they  were  often  damaged  by  frost  and  acci- 
dent, and  left  plenty  of  work  to  be  done  by 
the  professional  carriers  who  drew  water  for 
sale  from  the  river. 

The  first  attempt  to  give  London  a  reliable 
and  organized  supply  seems  to 

w"f "  .?."'*.^^  have  been  made  by  a  foreign 
Water  Works.  , 

engineer,     whose     name     was 

Anglicised  into  Morris.  He  had  the  sagacity 
to  realize  that  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides 


through  the  arches  of  London  Bridge  might 

be   made   to   turn  wheels   and   work   pumps. 

The  London  Bridge  Water  Works,  started  by 

him  in   1582,  and  developed   gradually  until 

the  destruction  of  the  bridge  in  1822,  proved 

so  lucrative  as  to  have  the  inevitable  effect 

of  raising  up  rivals  to  share  in  the  profits  of 

watermongering. 

In  1609  the  Common  Council  grant^ed  to  one 

Hugh  Myddleton,  a  burgess  of  London  and  a 

jeweller  by  trade,  powers  to  tap 

the  Lee  near  Hertford,  and  lead  ® 

New  River 
water    through    an    aqueduct        j,  , 

about  40  miles  long  into  the 
heart  of  the  city.  Myddleton  lost  no  time  in 
getting  to  work  upon  the  construction  of  the 
New  River,  the  name  which  the  aqueduct  then 
received,  and  which  has  clung  to  it  ever  since. 
The  so-called  "  river  "  was,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  an  open  conduit  of  the  Roman  type,  with 
a  water  surface  following  a  uniform  hydraulic 
gradient  from  end  to  end.  For  a  large  part 
of  its  length  it  took  the  form  of  an  ordinary 
canal  ;  at  some  points  it  ran  through  wooden 
troughs  supported  on  wooden  arches. 

The  engineer  had  to  face  difficulties  of  the 
same  nature  as  those  which,  many  years  later, 
overtook  the  first  constructors  of  railways 
—owners  of  land  objected 
strongly  to  the  passage  of  the 
river  through  their  proper- 
ties, fearing  evil  consequences  from  outbreaks 
of  water  and  the  subdivision  of  their  fields. 
It  looked  at  one  time  as  if  Parliament  would 
repeal  the  powers  granted  to  Myddleton, 
whose  anxiety  was  aggravated,  after  a  year's 
work,  by  the  exhaustion  of  his  funds  and  the 
projection  of  a  scheme  to  tap  the  Lee  at 
Hackney.  Feeling  himself  in  a  very  tight 
corner,  Myddleton  applied  directly  to  James 
I.  for  help.  The  king  agreed  to  make  him- 
self responsible  for  half  the  expense  and  to 
take  half  the  profits,  while  leaving  the  prac- 
tical direction  of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  his 
partner.     Possibly    even    more    valuable    to 


James  I. 
assists. 


HOW    LONDON    GETS    ITS    WATER. 


195 


The  New  River 
completed. 


Myddleton  than  the  pecuniary  help  was  the 
royal  protection  thus  assured  against  the 
promotion  of  rival  schemes. 

On  Michaelmas  Day,  1613,  the  New  River 
was  opened  officially,  and  its 
water  admitted  to  the  reservoir 
at  Clerkenwell,  whence  wooden 
pipes  ran  to  many  points  in  the  city.  Its 
designer  did  not  reap 
any  great  advantage 
from  his  enterprise, 
and  died  in  debt  to 
the  Corporation  of 
London  for  sums  of 
money  advanced  to 
enable  him  to  com- 
plete the  work.  But 
after  the  first  period 
of  adversity  the  New 
River  went  ahead — 
swallowed  or  de- 
stroyed smaller 
schemes  that  in- 
vaded its  territory, 
and  flourished  ex- 
ceedingly. In  quite 
recent  times  •  the 
original  shares  in 
this  company  have 
changed  hands  at 
prices  which  may 
justly  be  described 
as  fabulous,  showing 
a  greater  rise  in 
value      over      their 

issued  price  than  can  be  boasted  by  the  shares 
of  any  other  commercial  venture  of  which  we 
have  knowledge. 

For  a  considerable  period  the  New  River 
reigned  supreme.  The  Chelsea  Waterworks 
Company  was  incorporated  in  1722.  I<arge 
reservoirs  were  made  in  St.  James's  and  Hyde 
Parks,  and  pipes  were  installed  to  distribute 
the  water  among  a  large  number  of  houses  in 
the  Whitehall  and  Westminster  districts. 


Increase  in 

the  Number 

of  Water 

Companies. 


SIR    HUGH    MYDDLETON,    THE    DESIGNER    AND 

CONSTRUCTOR    OP    THE    NEW    RIVER. 

{Rischgitz  Collection.) 


In  1 745  a  water  business  was  established 
to  supply  the  East  End.  Then  followed  a 
lull  until  1785 — when  the  Lambeth  Water- 
works Company  received  its 
charter — in  the  extension  of 
waterworks,  due  no  doubt 
largely  to  the  difficulty  of  con- 
structing machinery  of  suffi- 
cient power  to  pump 
large  quantities  of 
water  at  a  moderate 
cost.  Newcomen's 
"  atmospheric  "  en- 
gine, much  used 
during  the  earlier 
half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  for 
unwatering  mines, 
was  greatly  im- 
proved upon  by  the 
invention  of  James 
Watt,  who  in  1769 
patented  his  system 
of  steam  condensa- 
tion in  a  chamber 
separate  from  the 
cylinder  in  which  the 
vacuum  formed  was 
used.  This  simple 
but  very  important 
innovation,  added  to 
certain  other  im- 
provements in  me- 
chanical detail,  pro- 
duced great  econ- 
omy in  fuel  consumption.  By  the  end  of 
the  century  the  steam  pump  had  become 
very  efficient.  It  is  not  surprising,  there- 
fore, that  in  the  early  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  several  new  water  companies 
should  have  been  formed.  In  1807  the  West 
Middlesex  Waterworks  Company  was  incor- 
porated to  supply  the  West  End  of  London 
with  water  drawn  from  the  Thames  near 
Hampton.     Tlio  year   1808  witnessed  the  in- 


196 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


VIEW   ON    NEW   RIVER    AT    HOE    LANE    PUMPING    STATION. 

In  the  foreground  is  one  of  the  iron  punts  used  by  the  walksicnen  who  patrol 

the  aqueduct. 


Corporation  of  the  East  London  Waterworks 
Company,  and  1809  that  of  the  Kent  Water- 
works Company.  The  Grand  Junction  Water- 
works, for  the  supply  of  Paddington,  Maryle- 
bone,  and  adjacent  parishes,  date  from  1811. 
Thus  in  the  course  of  four  successive  years 
four  important  schemes  materialized,  and  now 
London  had  a  prospect  of  being  supplied  with 
an  adequate  volume  of  water  for  all  purposes. 
The  Vauxhall  Waterworks  Company,  estab- 
lished at  Vauxhall  Bridge  in  1805,  and  the 
Southwark  Waterworks  Company,  formed  at 
London  Bridge  in  1822,  amalgamated  in  1845. 
It  would  be  of  little  interest  to  review  the 
gradual  extension  of  the  eight  companies 
named  above,  which  eventually  parcelled  out 
the  area  of  what  is  known 
*    ®^         as  Water  London.     Until  re- 

Water^Board.  ^^^^^^    ^^®  "^^^  -^^^®^'   ^^^^~ 
sea.  East  London,  West  Mid- 
dlesex, and  Grand  Junction  Companies,  and 
the  waterworks  belonging  to  the  Tottenham 
and  Enfield  Urban  District  Councils,  supplied 


the  districts   north   of    the 
Thames  ;   the  Kent,  South- 
wark    and     Vauxhall,    and 
Lambeth     Companies     the 
districts  on  the  south  side. 
In   1904  all   the   companies 
were    bought    out    by    the 
Metropolitan  Water  Board, 
established  in  1902  to  con- 
trol the  whole  area,  which 
is    now    divided    into    five 
districts — the  Eastern,  New 
River,    Western,    Southern, 
and    Kent.      (See    map,    p. 
197.)     As    at    present    con- 
stituted,   the    Eastern    dis- 
trict depends  for  its  supply 
on  the  Lee,  on  eleven  wells 
in  the  Lee  Valley,  and  upon 
water      drawn      from      the 
Thames    at     Sunbury    and 
pumped    through     36  -  inch 
mains  to  reservoirs  at   Finsbury  Park.     The 
New  River  district  is  fed  by  the  river  Lee,  a 
spring  at'Chadwell,  18  wells  in  the  Lee  valley, 
and  the'  Thames.     The  Western  depends  al- 
most entirely  on  the  Thamef ;    the  Southern 
on  the  Thames  for  about  97  per  cent,  of  its 
supply,  the  rest  being  obtained  from  wells. 
The   Kent   district  is   peculiar  in  being  sup- 
plied solely  from  eighteen  wells  in  the  chalk 
and    one    in    the    greensand. 
Some  of  the  wells  in  this  area 
are  extraordinarily  productive. 
Nine  furnish  between  them  nearly  15,000,000 
gallons  a  day.    In  depth,  however,  they  do  not 
approach  the  well  at  Streatham,  which  pene- 
trates 89  strata,  and  is  1,270  feet  deep.     The 
amount  of  water  obtainable  daily  from  this 
well  was  at  one  time  about  2,000,000  gallons. 
The  private  wells  sunk  and  used  in  the  Water 
London  area  contribute  only  very  slightly  to 
the  total  figures. 

The  water,  whatever  be  its  source,  is  pumped 
when  ready  for  consumption  to  service  reser- 


Productive 
Wells. 


HOW    LONDON    GETS    ITS    WATER. 


197 


MAP    OF    WATER    LONDON,  SHOWING   THE    NEW    RIVER,  AND    THE    PRINCIPAL    INTAKES,   WELLS,  PUMPING 

STATIONS,    AND    RESERVOIRS. 

The  five  districts — the  New  River,  Eastern,  Western,  Southern,  and  Kent — are  named  in  large  type,  and 
their  inside  boiindaries  are  indicated  by  fine  dotted  lines. 


Reservoirs. 


voirs  scattered  all  over  the  area,  and  situated 
at  a  sufficient  elevation  to  give 
a  good  "  head  "  or  pressure  in 
the  service  mains.  The  Kent  well  water,  be- 
ing pure  initially,  is  delivered  direct  to  the 


service  reservoirs  ;  whereas  that  taken  from 
the  Thames  and  Lee  flows  or  is  pumped  first 
into  large  low-level  storage  reservoirs — where 
a  large  proportion  of  the  slight  amount  of  sus- 
pended matter  is  deposited — and  then  is  passed 


198 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THllEE    SKTS    OF    MARINE    TYPE    TRIPLE-EXPANSION 
550    HORSE-POWER    EACH. 


through  filter  beds  to  pumps  which  deliver  it 
to  the  high-level  service  reservoirs. 

In  the  London  area  there  are  1,497  acres 
of  subsiding  and  storage  reservoirs  for  unfil- 
tered  water,  59|  acres  of  service  reservoirs, 
and  164  acres  of  filter  beds.  To  move  the 
water,  265  engines,  consuming  annually  nearly 
160,000  tons  of  coal,  and  developing  an  aggre- 
gate of  38,361^  horse-power,  are  used. 


The  largest  reservoirs 

yet  constructed  are  the 

two    at   Staines.      They 

have    an 

area     of        ^^^'"^^ 
Reservoirs. 

424  acres 

—  about  two-thirds  of  a 
square  mile,  and  contain 
when  full  3,338,000,-000 
gallons.  The  water  is 
impounded  by  large 
banks  of  earth  faced  on 
the  inner  slopes  with 
concrete  blocks  to  with- 
stand the  action  of  the 
very  considerable  waves 
which  arise  when  a  high 
wind  prevails. 

Far  larger  than  either 
of  the  Staines  reservoirs 

will      be 

+u„+  ^  Chingford 

that  now  ^,       ^  * 

New  Reservoir. 
in  course 

of  construction  near 
Chingford,  to  serve  the 
Eastern  and  New  River 
Districts.  Its  capacity 
will  be  approximately 
3,000,000,000  gallons- 
equivalent  to  thirteen 
days'  supply  for  the 
whole  Metropolitan 
Water  Board  area — its 
surface  416  acres,  and 
its  greatest  depth  34 
feet.  The  first  sod  was 
cut  by  Mr.  E.  B.  Barnard,  M.P.,  the  present 
Chairman  of  the  Board,  on  April  11,  1908. 
The  contract  for  the  work  was  awarded  to 
Messrs.  Charles  Wall,  Limited. 

The  formation  of  the  reservoir  has  neces- 
sitated the  diversion  of  the  Lee,  which  now 
flows  round  the  eastern  end  of  the  site.  A 
new  channel,  3  miles  long,  55  feet  wide,  and 
almost  straight,  is  being  cut ;    also  an  intake 


PL.MPING    ENGINES    OF 


(Photo,  Topical.) 


HOW    LONDON    GETS    ITS    WATER. 


199 


channel  from  the  Lee,  an  outlet  channel   1.}      The  clay  wall  and  the  clay  substratum  form 
miles  long,  and  an  overflow  conduit.  the  sides  and  bottom  of  a  gigantic  and  abso- 


SIX-FOOT    DIAMETER    MAINS    THROUGH    WHICH    WATER    IS    PUMPED    INTO    THE    GREAT 
RESERVOIRS    AT    STAINES,    NEAR    LONDON. 

{Photo,  by  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Thonuis  Piggott  and  Sons,  Biriningham.) 


The  largest  constructional  item  is  the  rais- 
ing of  the  4|  miles  of  embankment  required 
to  impound  the  water.     In  the  middle  of  the 
embankment  is  a  vertical  core 
The  Embank-    ^,^^  ^^  "puddled"  clay,  car- 
mentSa 

ried  down  at  all  points  to  the 

bed  of  London  clay  which  underlies  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  at  an  average  depth  of 
about  20  feet.  Up  to  ground-level  the  core 
wall  is  formed  in  a  trench  ;  above  the  surface 
it  is  built  up  simultaneously  with  the  em- 
bankment. This  last  has  a  water  slope  of  1 
in  3  and  1  in  4,  and  an  outside  slope  of  1  in 
2J.  The  earth  needed  for  its  construction — 
some  3,000,000  tons — is  excavated  by  steam 
navvies  and  grabs  and  by  hand  from  the 
bed  of  the  reservoir,  at  a  distance  not  less 
than  200  feet  from  the  toe  of  the  inside  slope. 


lutely  water-tight  tank.  The  outward  pres- 
sure of  the  water  is  borne  by  the  embank- 
ment, which  has  on  the  reservoir  side  a  facing 
of  concrete  slabs  and  bricks  set  in  cement. 

In  order  that  the  water  may  be  drained 
away  entirely  if  necessary,  the  bed  of  the 
reservoir  will  be  given  a  gentle  slope  towards 
the  southern  outlet.  The  old  bed  of  the  Lee 
has  been  cleared  out  and  filled  up  with  hard 
earth  of  the  same  nature  as  the  rest  of  the 
bottom. 

An  army  of  twelve  hundred  men,  a  multi- 
tude of  locomotives  and  trucks — for  which 
many  miles  of  rails  have  been  laid — and  a 
large  equipment  of  excavating 
machines,  electric  motors,  and 
pumps,  are,  and  will  be  for  many  months  to 
come,  engaged  in  the  task  of  forming  an  arti- 


Excavating^. 


200 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


MAKING   THE   TRENCH   POR   THE   LOWER   PART   OF    A   PUDDLED    CLAY   CORE    WALL,    CHINGFORD    NEW 

RESERVOIR. 
EXCAVATOR    AT    WORK    AT    CENTRE    OP   CHINGFORD    NEW   RESERVOIR. 


ficial  lake  which  will  cover  an  area  much 
larger  than  Hyde  Park,  and  will  contain  more 
than  half  the  volume  of  water  stored  in  Lake 
Thirlmere.  From  Chingford  the  water  will 
pass  through  an  aqueduct  to  the  great  reser- 
voirs at  Walthamstow.    The  bulk  will  flow 


thence  by  gravity  to  the  filter  beds  at  Lee 

Bridge  Pumping  Station.     At 

the  Ferry  Lane  Station  to  the 

north  of  the  main  group  of  the 

Walthamstow  lakes  is  a  pump 

driven  by  a  De  Laval  steam  turbine,  which 


A  Wonderful 
Steam  Tur- 
bine. 


HOW    LONDON    GETS    ITS    WATEP.. 


201 


will  deliver  11,000,000  gallons  of  the  Ching- 
ford  water  daily,  when  occasion  requires,  into 
the  New  River  channel  at  Stoke  Newington. 
It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  this  tur- 
bine is  as  notable  for  its  small  size  as  the 
Cornish  engines  at  Lee  Bridge  are  impressive 
by  virtue  of  their  great  dimensions.  A  cas- 
ing 4  feet  in  diameter,  and  but  a  foot  or  so 
long,  houses  a  wheel  which,  rotating  7,500 
times   a   minute,   develops  even  more  power 


of  the  Thames  by  mains  passing  under  the 
river. 

The  reservoir  has  a  length  of  824  feet,  a 
greatest  width  of  587  feet,  a  water  area  of 
about  10  acres,  a  general  depth  of  21  feet  6 
inches,  and  a  greatest  depth  of  34  feet. 

The  first  operation  to  be  carried  out  was 
to  excavate  173,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  and 
clay,  which  supplied  the  material  for  19,000,000 
bricks.     On  the  north  and  on  portions  of  the 


L'-r^i^^?^*'- 


'''f 


y' 


^if!iL...^'^'i^- 


'-^r-ix^. 


THE  SUPPLY  CHANNEL  OF  THE  CHINGFORD  NEW  RESERV' 


than  the  "  Prince  "  or  the  "  Princess  "  de- 
scribed on  a  later  page.  This  high-speed  tur- 
bine, and  the  centrifugal  pump  which  it  drives, 
represent  one  of  the  latest  developments  in 
pumping  machinery. 

The   Beachcroft  reservoir    at    Honor   Oak,_, 
opened  on  May  5,  1909,  is  remarkable  as  being 
the   largest   covered   reservoir    in    the  world 
constructed  at   one  time  and 

^  under  one  contract.     The  main 

Beachcroft       ,       .,      r   xu  •     •     + 

Reservoir.      ^'^J^^*   ^^  *^®  reservoir   is  to 
supply  water  at  low  pressure^ 
to  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  Metropolitan 
Water  Board's  area.     The  water  can,  if  ne- 
cessary, be  transferred  to  the   northern   side 


east  and  west  sides,  where  the  top  of  the  reser- 
voir is  above  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground, 
embankments  were  built  of  alternate  horizontal 
layers  of  earth  and  burnt  ballast.  Between 
the  outside  retaining  walls  and  the  ground  a 
3-foot  wall  of  puddled  clay  was  carried  down 
to  and  into  the  London  clay  to  form  a  water- 
tight enclosure  independently  of  the  brickwork. 
The  whole  of  the  bottom  is  covered  by  in- 
verted arches  of  concrete  crossing  one  another 
at  right  angles.  At  the  points  of  intersection, 
21 J  feet  apart  in  both  direc- 
tions, rise  brick  piers  of  cruci- 
form section,  connected  by  arches  running  the 
whole  length   of   the  reservoir   from  east   to 


The  Roof. 


MAKING    OUTLET    CHANNEL   TO   THE    CHINGFOED    NEW   RESERVOIR. 

Earth  excavated,  ready  for  concreting. 
CONCRETE    INVERT    OF    THE    OUTLET   CHANNEL. 


HOW    LONDON    GETS    ITS    WATER. 


203 


west.  These  arches  and  the  piers  carry  the 
roof,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  parallel  brick- 
work segmental  arches  running  north  and 
south,  covered  with  a  6-inch  layer  of  cement 
concrete,  above  which  is  the  clay  and  top 
soil  originally  taken  from  the  site. 

Two  walls  at  right  angles  to  each  other 
divide  the  reservoir  into  four  sections.  At 
the  point  where  the  walls  cross  is  a  valve 
house  for  the  valves  controlling  the  supply. 


north  or  Essex  side,  the  smaller  portion  in 

Middlesex.  ^  Entering   at  the   main   gateway, 

we  are  confronted  by  a  large 

engine-house,    in    which  two  Cornish 

,      ^       .  ,  ^,  Pumpincr 

great     Cornish     engmes,  the  „      . 

°  °        '  Engines. 

"  Prince  "      and     "  Princess," 
have  been  busily  at  work   since  1867  deliver- 
ing water  to  a   reservoir  at  Finsbury  Park. 
Overhead    rocks    up    and    down   the    mighty 
beam    of   each   engine,  its  ends  pulled  down 


RIVER    LEE    DIVERSION — ON    RIGHT — WHICH    CARRIES    THE    RIVER    ALONG    THE    EAST    SIDE    OF    THE 

CHINGFORD    NEW    RESERVOIR. 
On  the  left  is  a  tributary  of  the  Lee. 


draw-off,  and  intercommunication  of  the  sec- 
tions, each  of  which  can  be  filled  or  emptied 
independently  of  the  others. 

As  the  pumping  stations,  filter  beds,  etc., 
resemble  one  another  closely  in  their  general 
arrangement,  and  as  the  principles  of  filter- 
ing are  the  same  in  all  gravi- 

Lee  Bridge     ^^^^^^  ^j^^j.  ^^^^^  j^  ^jjj  ^^^^^ 

Station         *^   describe   a   single   installa- 
tion.    For    our    example    we 
may  select  the  Lee  Bridge  pumping  station, 
which  is  one  of  the  chief  feeders  of  the  East- 
ern district. 

Tlie  station  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the 
river   Lee,   the    main  portion    being   on   the 


alternately  by  the  pressure  of  steam  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  piston  in  the  single  cylinder 
of  7-foot  bore  and  11-foot  stroke,  and  by  the 
22-ton  weight  attached  to  the  top  of  the  45-inch 
plunger.  The  steam  serves  merely  to  raise 
the  plunger  ;  the  weight  referfed  to  does  the 
forcing  of  the  water-  100  cubic  feet,  or  about 
600  gallons,  per  stroke-  against  a  head  of  140 
feet.  A  Cornish  engine  has  the  disadvantage 
of  occupying  a  great  deal  of  room  proportion- 
ately to  its  power,  but  is  remarkably  simple 
in  its  mechanism,  and  seldom  needs  any  re- 
pair. Each  engine  is  capable  of  delivering 
10,000,000  gallons  a  day. 

Passing  out  of  the  engine-house,  we  are  soon 


204 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Filter  Beds. 


PLACING    THE    STEEL    RODS    FOR    A    REINFOR(  i   p       'i 
OVER    THE    RIVER    LEE    DIVERSION. 

on  the  edge  of  the  first  of  the  four  groups  of 
filter  beds.  Three  of  the  groups  contain  six 
beds,  arranged  round  a  great 
circular  covered  well  like  the 
petals  of  an  irregularly -shaped  flower.  Strained 
water  is  admitted  into  these  through  culverts 
from  an  open  aqueduct  fed  by  the  great  Wal- 
thamstow  reservoirs,  1 1  miles  away  to  the  north. 
Were  our  vision  able  to  penetrate  opaque  ob- 
jects, we  should  see  the  concrete  floor  of  the 
filter,  on  that  a  9-inch  layer  of  large  gravel, 
above  that  again  9  inches  of  small  gravel,  and 
top  of  all  a  couple  of  feet  of  sea  sand.  Every 
twenty-four  hours  about  1,000,000  gallons  of 
water  percolate  through  every  acre  of  filter  to 
the  concrete  bottom,  along  which  it  flows  to 
a  culvert  communicating  with  the  central  well. 
From  the  well  it  passes  to  the  sumps  of  the 
several  pumps. 

Once  a  month  during  the  summer,  and  once 
in  six  weeks  in  the  winter,*  a  bed  is  drained 
and  a  top  layer,  half  an  inch  or  so  thick,  of 
sand  is  scraped  off,  together  with  the  super- 
incumbent mud  and  other  impurities — such  as 
weeds — and  washed  for  further  use. 


*  The  period  may  be  much  longer  or  much  shorter  (in  ex- 
treme cases,  three  weeks  or  several  months),  according  to  the 
weather  prevailing. 


Washing  is  done  either  by 
subjecting  the  sand  to  high- 
pressure  water  jets,  or  by 
passing  it  through  a  mechani- 
cal washer    of 

A--U    4.^       u     ^      Mechanical 
the  type  shown  „      .  „,    . 
^^     ^  Sand  Washer. 

m   one  of   our 

illustrations.  The  machine 
runs  on  rails  round  the  edge 
of  the  central  well.  It  con- 
sists of  a  large  horizontal  tube 
about  15  inches  in  diameter, 
inside  which  is  an  Archimedean 
screw  driven  through  gearing 
by  a  high  -  pressure  three- 
'  '  cylinder    hydraulic   engine  at- 

tached to  the  carriage.  The 
sand  is  lifted  from  the  bed  of  the  filter 
by  means  of  a  hydraulic  ejector  and  de- 
posited in  a  bin  at  one  end,  where  it  is 
caught  by  the  screw  and  moved  slowly  along 
the  tube,  encountering  in  its  passage  the  en- 
gine's exhaust  water  travelling  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  water  picks  up  all  the  dirt 
and  carries  it  away  to  a  shoot  emptying  into 
a  concrete  conduit  running  parallel  to  the  rails. 
The  cleansed  sand  falls  into  a  bin,  from  which 
it  is  scooped  by  an  endless  chain  of  buckets 
— also  driven  by  the  engine — and  deposited 
at  the  edge  of  the  filter  bed,  or  in  some  other 
convenient  place.  One  of  these  washers  will 
deal  with  50  cubic  yards  in  a  day.  The  filter 
beds  of  the  station  have  a  combined  area  of 
24  acres.  If  all  were  in  use  simultaneously — 
an  infrequent  occurrence — they  could  deal  with 
about  one-tenth  of  the  total  London  water 
supply. 

In  other  engine-houses  on  the   Essex  side 
are  a  pair  of   compound  ver- 

tical  engines  ;    a  pair  of  hori- 

.  .  Pumping: 

zontal    Worthmgton    engines  ;       Eng-ines. 

a  single  horizontal  tandem  ;  a 

triple  expansion   engine  of  the  marine  type, 

known   as   the    "  Prince   Consort,"   operating 

three  pumps  ;   and  three   vertical   triple  ex- 


T^^^^^T- 


.V.V.,;  A 


RELIEVING    ARCHES,    NORTH-EAST    RESERVOIR,    HONOR    OAK. 

FLASHLIGHT    PHOTOGRAPH    OF    THE    INTERIOR   OF   THE   HONOR   OAK    RESERVOIR,    TAKEN    AT   THE 

OPENING    CEREMONY. 
This  view  shows  one  bay  between  two  rows  of  piers,  and  also  the  roof  arches. 

{Photos,  E.  Milnar.) 


208 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


pansion  engines  with  Corliss  valve  gear.  These 
last  deliver  12,000,000  gallons  each  per  diem  ; 
the  Worthington  and  the  marine  type  units 
have  a  daily  duty  of  about  10,000,000  gallons 
each.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  "  Prince 
Consort "  and  the  three  "  triples "  deliver 
water  direct  into  the  service  mains,  and  not, 
as  is  usually  the  case,  into  a  service  reservoir. 
The  speed  of  the  engine  is  governed  by  the 
rate  at  which  the  water  is  drawn  from  the 
main.  If  the  demand  ceased  altogether,  the 
engine,  which  is  designed  to  pump  against  a 
head  of  about  107  feet,  would  stop. 

Near  the  "  Prince  Consort  "  is  a  well,  11  feet 
in  diameter  and  200  feet  deep.  Through  the 
chalk  to  which  it  reaches,  horizontal  headings 
have  been  driven  in  several 
^^  h'^  directions.  Their  total  length 
is  about  IJ  miles.  When  the 
supply  of  river  water  is  low,  as  sometimes 
happens  in  the  dry  season,  this  well  is  requi- 
sitioned. As  many  as  3,000,000  gallons  have 
been  raised  from  it  by  the  twin  pumps  in  a 
day. 

Crossing  over  the  Lee  and  the  Hackney  cut, 
we  find  a  solitary  Cornish  engine,  the  "  Vic- 
toria," delivering  water  to  the  Mile  End,  Strat- 
ford, Hackney,  and  other  East- 

Standpipes     ^^  districts.     In  this   case   a 

Chambers,  ^^^^^pipe,  4  feet  in  diameter, 
120  feet  high,  and  open  at  the 
top,  serves  to  absorb  variations  in  pressure — 
the  water  rising  in  the  pipe  during  the  delivery 
stroke  of  the  pump,  and  sinking  again  during 
the  suction  stroke.  The  same  system  is  used 
for  the  other  two  Cornish  engines.  Where 
the  head  of  water  is  such  that  a  standpipe  of 
sufficient  height  cannot  be  provided  conven- 
iently, a  large  air  chamber,  mounted  on  the 
main,  is  employed  to  provide  the  requisite 
"  buffering." 

Among  the  machinery  are  two  Girard  water 

^     . .         ■'    turbines,  working  two  sets  of 
Turbines.  ® 

three  plunger    pumps.      They 

are  driven  by  the  fall  of  water  over  an  adja- 


cent weir  in  flood  time.  There  are  also  two 
Hercules  turbines  driving  four  pumps  for 
delivering  water  direct  into  the  mains. 

In  connection  with  the  Lee  Bridge  pump- 
ing station  should  be  mentioned  the  group  of 
reservoirs  at  Walthamstow.  There  are  twelve 
reservoirs  in  all,  with  a  total 

area  of  479  acres  and  a  ca-  "® 

,   ,  .  ,         ,       1       ,     »  Walthamstow 
pacity  at  high-water  level  or       „ 
^       -^            »  Reservoirs. 

2,400,000,000  gallons.  Six  of 
them  contain  islands — formed  by  casting  up 
part  of  the  earth  excavated  from  the  sites — 
planted  with  flowering  shrubs,  limes,  and 
willows.  These  islands  are  a  beautiful  feature 
of  the  landscape. 

The  reservoirs  are  fed  by  water  from  the 
Lee,  and  from  two  wells.  One  of  the  two 
pumping  stations  delivers  water  to  reservoirs 
at  Hornsey  Wood  and  Haggar  Lane  ;  the 
other  pumps  to  Ferry  Lane  and  into  the  open 
aqueduct  which  connects  the  reservoirs  with 
the  Lee  Bridge  station. 

A  few  words  about  the  mains  which  dis- 
tribute the  water.  Their  aggregate  length  is 
at  present  about  6,280  miles.  In  internal  diam- 
eter they  range  from  54  inches 
to  2  inches.  There  are  about 
7 1  miles  of  the  54-inch  mains,  as  many  of  48- 
inch  ;  208  miles  of  36-inch  ;  84|  of  24-inch  ; 
285  of  12-inch  ;  and  3,000  miles  of  4-inch, 
which  diameter  is  most  widely  employed  for 
the  smaller  mains. 

The  3-inch  pipes  take  second  place  with  about 
1,050  miles.  If  to  the  mains  were  added  the 
lead  piping  for  the  house  services,  the  total 
mileage  would  be  somewhat  astonishing.  The 
very  moderate  average  of  three  yards  of  lead 
piping  for  each  man,  woman,  and  child  gives 
21,000  miles  ;  so  that  we  may  safely  assume 
that  the  pipes  used  for  the  water  supply  of 
Greater  London  would  suffice  to  encircle  the 
earth. 

The  greatest  pressures  fall  on  the  pumping 
mains,  which  in  one  case  have  to  withstand  a 
head  of  600  feet. 


Water  Mains. 


208 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


A   40-INCH    WATER    MAIN. 


{Photo,  E.  Alilner.) 


In  conclusion,  despite  the  size  of  the  works, 
the  Water  Board  are  considering  extensions 
that  will  be  necessary  in  the  future.  The 
Thames  may  be  drawn  upon  still  further,  as 
the  great  chalk  beds  through  which  its  upper 
reaches  flow  absorb  heavy  rain  like  a  sponge, 


and  pass  the  water  out  slowly  to  the  river  alt 
the  year  round.  These  chalk  deposits  pro- 
duce, in  fact,  the  same  effects  as  a  dam, 
though  in  a  very  different  way,  and  to  them 
Londoners  owe  in  no  small  measure  the  regu- 
larity of  their  water  supply. 


[Note. — The  author  is  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.   W.  B.  Bryant,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Chief 

Engineer  of    the   Metropolitan    Water    Board,   for  assistance    given   by  him 

in  regard  to  the  preparation,  revision,  and  illustrations  of  this  article; 

also  to  Messrs.   CJmrles  Wall,  Limited, 

for  use  of   photographs. '\ 


CONSTRUCTING    THE    NEW    HIGH-LEVEL    OUTFALL    SEWER   FROM    PLUMSTEAD    TO    CROSSNESS. 

Putting  in  the  concrete  round  moulds.  {Photo,  E.  Milner.) 


THE   WONDERFUL 
DRAINAGE   SYSTEM   OF    LONDON. 


BY    THE    EDITOR. 

An  account  of  the  Works  by  which  the  Largest  City  in  the  World  is  drained,  and 
of  the  system  used  for  disposing  of  the  vast  quantity  of  Sewage  that  has 
to  be  dealt  with  daily. 


THE  prudent  house-hunter  is  careful  to 
investigate  fully  the  water  supply  of 
any  house  in  which  he  may  be  inter- 
ested, and  also  its  drainage  system.  The  sec- 
ond is  the  complement  to  the  first.  The  ad- 
vantages of  an  abundant  supply  of  good  water 

are  greatly  lessened  if  there  be 

Water  Supply  .  .       c 

_.  ^     .     *^  "^    no  proper  provision  for  carry- 
and  Drainage.   .  „    , 

ing  off  all  the  water  that  may 

be  used  in  the  bathroom,  sinks,  closets,  etc. 
For  an  isolated  house  a  system  of  cesspools 
may  serve,  but  where  many  dwellings  are 
packed  closely  together  some  other  method  of 


getting  rid  of  waste  water  and  objectionable 
and  dangerous  sewage  is  necessary. 

The  problems  connected  with  the  drainage 
of  London,  the  world's  greatest  and  most  popu- 
lous city,  have  exercised  for  a  hundred  years 
or    more    the    minds    of    the 

authorities   responsible  for  its  ^^^  Problem 

.,    , .  X.  ,  .  ,  of  Draining 

sanitation,      it    may    be    said       ,       . 

"^  London. 

with  justice  that  the  very  im- 
provement of  the  water  supply  has  rendered 
these  problems   more   and    more    difficult    to 
solve ;   while    the    gradual    covering    in    with 
houses    and    paved    streets    of    120    square 

VOL.  m. 


THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    OF    LONDON. 


211 


miles  of  the  earth's  surface  has  contributed 

in  no  small   degree   to   the   difficulties,   since 

the    rainfall    on    this    great    area    must     be 

dealt    with     by    entirely    artificial     drainage. 

The  rain  that   falls   in  a  country  district    is 

mostly  absorbed  by  the  ground.     Only  when 

the  fall  is  very  heavy  do  the  ditches  fill  and 

overflow.     In  a  town  a  thunderstorm  would 

soon  convert  the  streets  into  lakes  were  not 

suitable  arrangements  made  for  carrying  off 

the  water  as  fast  as  it  falls. 

The  old  sewers  of  London  were  constructed 

to  deal  with   the   rainfall   only,    and    mostly 

followed  the  lines  of  old  water  courses.    Early 

in     the     nineteenth     century 

The  old  cesspools    were    introduced  to 
Sewers  and  -.i  e         ^ 

^  .  receive  the  sewage  from  houses. 

Cesspools.  ^ 

Until  1815  the  law  forbade 
the  discharge  of  house  sewage  into  sewers  ; 
but  as  the  cesspools  proved  to  be  quite 
insufficient  for  their  purpose,  legislation  first 
permitted  and  then  (1847)  compelled  house 
drainage  to  be  discharged  into  the  sewers. 
Within  a  period  of  about  six  years  no  fewer 
than  30,000  cesspools  were  abolished  in  the 
London  area,  and  all  house  and  street  refuse 
was  turned  direct  into  the  Thames. 

Now,  a  large  part  of  London  lies  so  low  that 

sewers  running  through  it  into  the  river  must 

discharge  below  high- water  level.      This  fact 

had    most    unpleasant    conse- 

Difticulty  in    q^ences.    Sewage  could  escape 


discharging 


only  at  or  near  low  water.     As 


Sewage  into 

the  Thames.  ^^®  ^^^®  ^°^®  ^^^  sewage  from 
the  high  ground  as  well  as  the 
low  was  ponded  back  in  the  sewers.  The 
heavier  ingredients  settled  and  accumulated. 
During  rainy  periods,  and  especially  at  high 
tide,  the  sewers  overflowed  into  the  houses. 
Even  if  the  sewage  did  find  its  way  into  the 
Thames  it  was  merely  washed  backwards  and 
forwards  by  the  tides,  and  served  to  form 
foul  accumulations  on  the  river  banks. 

At  last  the  situation  became  so  intolerable 
that  public  opinion  demanded  a  remedy.     In 


1856  the  recently  formed  Metropolita-n  Board 

of  Works  requested  their  chief  engineer,  the 

late  Sir  Joseph  Bazalgette,  to 

draw  up  plans  for  a  .system  of       Reforms 

discharging  all  the  sewage  of  a    l 

the  Metropolis  into  the  river  at 

a  point  below  London  where  it  would  prove 

less  obnoxious. 

The  fact  that  the  land  rises  gradually  from 
the  Thames  both  northwards  and  southwards 
greatly  assisted  the  evolution  of  a  scheme  of 
intercepting  sewers  running  roughly  west  and 
east. 

The  scheme  authorized  in  1 856  and  executed 
between  that  year  and  1874,  may  be  sum- 
marized briefly  thus. 

On  the  north  side  were  made  tlu*ee  inter- 
cepting sewers— a  high-level  sewer,   7^  miles 
long,  running  from  Hampstead  to  Old  Ford,  at 
which  point  it  met  a  middle- 
level    sewer,     9|    miles    long,    ^"^  Present 

from  Willesden,  both  of  which    .   / 

interceptmg 
sewers    flow     by    gravitation.        Sewers. 

From  Old  Ford  these  two 
sewers  discharged  into  the  Thames  at  Bark- 
ing through  an  outfall  sewer,  5|  miles  long, 
and  consisting  of  two  culverts  9  feet  by 
9  feet,  from  Old  Ford  to  Abbey  Mills,  and 
three  lines  from  the  latter  point  to  Barking, 
raised  above  ground  in  embankment.  Closely 
following  the  north  bank  of  the  river  for  a 
considerable  part  of  its  course,  a  low-level 
sewer  ran  13|^  miles  from  Hammersmith  to 
Abbey  Mills,  a  point  on  the  main  outfall 
sewer.  As  the  area  drained  by  this  sewer 
is  very  low-lying,  the  necessary  gradient  to 
Abbey  Mills  would  have  been  too  deep  for 
one  lirt,  and  to  obviate  this  difficulty  there 
was  constructed  an  intermediate  pumping 
station  at  Pimlico,  raising  the  sewage  west 
of  this  point  about  1 9  feet  into  another  sewer, 
which  falls  to  18  feet  below  Ordnance  datum 
at  Abbey  Mills.  Here  the  sewage  is  further 
raised  a  height  of  between  36  and  40  feet 
into  the  main  outfall  sewer  referred  to  above. 


212 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


WEIR    CHAMBER    AT    HAMMERSMITH    ROAD — THE    LARGEST    YET    BUILT. 


(Photo,  E.  MUner. 


In  times  of  heavy  rain  the  surplus  which  the  main  sewer  cannot  carry  flows  over  the  weir  wall  into  the  storm-relief  sewer, 

from  which  it  is  discharged  into  the  Thames. 


On  the  south  side  the  low-level,  the  high- 
level,  and  the  Effra  sewers,  totalling,  exclusive 
of  important  branches,  27  miles,  met  at  Dept- 
ford.  Here  the  first  was  pumped,  and  the  two 
second  discharged  by  gravitation,  into  the  out- 
fall sewer,  which  carried  the  sewage  to  Cross- 
ness. At  Crossness  all  the  sewage  of  South 
London  had  to  be  pumped  to  a  level  at  which 
it  could  be  emptied  into  the  Thames.  These 
three  south  intercepting  sewers  may  therefore 
all  be  considered  as  low-level. 

The  general  idea  of  the  scheme  was  to 
separate  the  London  area  into  strips,  each  of 
which  should  drain  into  an  intercepting  sewer 
passing  along  its  river-side  boundary.  The 
main  sewers,  running  north  and  south  at  right 
angles  to  the  intercepting,  were  themselves  fed 
by  a  ramification  of  local  sewers  serving  every 


individual  street.  Water  emptied  down  a  sink, 
whether  in  Chelsea,  Hampstead,  Holborn,  or 
Shoreditch,  would  eventually  find  its  way  to 
Barking,  just  as  water  from  the  roofs  of  houses 
in  Walworth,  Dulwich,  and  Bermondsey  would 
in  like  manner  be  delivered  at  Crossness. 
There  was  no  escape  from  the  sewer  network. 
Sir  Joseph  Bazalgette  based  his  calculations 
on  a  total  population  of  3,450,000  persons,  and 
an  average  of  5  cubic  feet  (31 1^  gallons)  per  day 
for  every  person.  The  inter- 
cepting and  outfall  sewers  were 
designed  to  carry  off  108,000,000  gallons  per 
day  in  dry  weather,  allowing  for  the  fact  that 
the  flow  is  much  greater  at  some  periods  of  the 
day  than  at  others.  Besides  the  actual  sewage 
the  rainfall  had  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The    intercepting    sewers    and    outfalls    were 


Storm  Water. 


THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    OF    LONDON. 


213 


ABBEY    MILLS    PUMPING    STATION,    WHERE    THE    SEWAGE    FROM    THE    NORTHERN    LOW-LEVEL   SEWERS 
IS    PUMPED    INTO    THE    NORTHERN    OUTFALL    SEWER. 

(Photo,  Pictorial  Agency.) 


therefore  made  large  enough  to  carry  off  some 
286,000,000  gallons  of  rain  water  per  day,  in 
addition  to  the  sewage.  This  quantity  of  water 
represents  an  average  fall  of  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  over  the  area  drained.  It  was  assumed, 
for  the  purpose  of  this  calculation,  that  the 
rainfall  would  be  equally  distributed  over  the 
twenty-four  hourfe  of  the  day.  We  all  know 
well  enough,  however,  that  a  day  of  heavy 
rain  means  a  fall  greatly  exceeding  one-sixth 
of  an  inch,  and  that  during  a  thunderstorm 
as  much  water  will  descend  in  a  few  minutes 
as  is  precipitated  in  a  whole  day  of  soft  rain. 
The  old  main-line  sewers,  which,  as  before 
stated,  run  from  north  to  south  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Thames,  and  which  originally  dis- 
charged their  contents  into  the  river,  are  still 
utilized  for  carrying  their  sewage,  but  deliver 
into  the  intercepting  sewers.    When  the  flow  in 


Storm -Relief 
Sewers. 


these  main  sewers  and  also  the  intercepting 
lines  becomes  too  great,  owing  to  excessive 
rainfall,  to  be  discharged  at  the 
outfall,  the  excess  passes  into 
the  river  by  means  of  the  old 
outlets.  For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  addi- 
tional relief  in  times  of  heavy  rain,  new  storm- 
relief  sewers  have  been  constructed.  Though 
this  system  of  coping  with  heavy  rainfalls  was 
in  a  way  a  reversion  to  the  old  method,  it  must 
be  noted  that  the  discharge  of  the  storm-relief 
and  other  sewers  would  not  begin  until  the 
intercepting  and  main  sewers  had  been  well 
flushed  by  the  first  inrush  of  surface  water. 
A  compromise  was  inevitable.  The  1891 
report  of  the  late  Sir  Benjamin  Baker  and 
of  Sir  Alexander  Binnie  stated  that  a  rain- 
fall of  half  an  inch  an  hour,  flowing  off 
the   area    drained    on  the  north  side  of   the 


214 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Thames  (50  square  miles)  alone  would  require 
a  channel  500  feet  wide  and  10  feet  deep,  and 
a  flow  velocity  of  200  feet  (about  2^  miles  an 
hour)  per  minute.  This  showed  the  impossi- 
bility of  carrying  off  a  maximum  fall  of  con- 
siderably over  one  inch  an  hour  through  sewers 
designed  to  act  as  efficient  channels  for  ordinary 
sewage. 


of   decades  earlier.     It  was   maintained  that 

the   river    had    been    rendered    dangerous    to 

navigation    and    to   health  by 

noxious     deposits.       Inquiries 

held  in  1 869  and  at  later  dates 

showed    that,    as    regards  the 

formation  of  mudbanks,  the  sewage  was  not 

responsible  ;   but  that  about  the  seriously  pol- 


Pollution  of 

the  Lower 

Thames. 


SCALE 


PLAN    OF    BARKING    OUTFALL    WORKS. 


The  large  figures  in  circles  denote  the  successive  operations  of  liming,  adding  iron  water,  precipitation,  sludge 
concentration,  and  delivery  to  the  sludge  vessels. 


The  completion  of  Sir  Joseph  Bazalgette's 
scheme  closes  what  may  be  termed  the  second 
stage  in  the  development  of  London  drainage. 
Three  huge  culverts  on  the  north,  and  one  on 
the  south,  led  all  the  crude  sewage  into  the 
Thames  at  points  about  14  miles  below  Lon- 
don Bridge — namely.  Barking  and  Crossness. 

Unfortunately  for  the  Metropolitan  Board  of 
Works,  the  inhabitants  of  Barking  presently 
began  to  complain  that  the  enormous  volume 
of  pollution  transferred  to  this  locality  repro- 
duced there  the  very  unpleasant  state  of  things 
against  which  Londoners  had  rebelled  a  couple 


luted  condition  of  the  river  there  could  be  no 
doubt.  In  1884  the  Commissioners  appointed 
to  investigate  the  matter  reported  that  Lon- 
don sewage  ought  not  to  be  discharged  in  its 
crude  state  into  any  part  of  the  Thames  ;  that 
the  solid  matter  should  be  separated  from  the 
liquid  by  some  process  of  deposition  or  pre- 
cipitation, and  be  applied  to  the  raising  of 
low-lying  lands,  or  be  burnt  or  dug  into  the 
land,  or  carried  away  to  sea  ;  that  the  liquid 
portion  of  the  sewage  might  be  allowed  to  pass 
into  the  river  after  being  chemically  clarified. 
As  a  result  of  this  report  the  Board  deter- 


THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    OF    LONDON. 


215 


The  Chemical 
Treatment 
of  Sewage 
introduced. 


DIVERSION    CHAMBERS    ON    NORTHERN    OUTFALL 
SEWERS    NEAR    ABBEY    MILLS. 

mined  to  construct  chemical  precipitation 
works  at  both  Barking  and  Crossness.  Those 
at  the  northern  outfall  were 
begun  in  1887  and  completed 
about  the  end  of  1890,  by  the 
London  County  Council,  which 
succeeded  the  Metropolitan 
Board  of  Works  in  1889  ;  while  the  Crossness 
works  were  commenced  in  1888,  and  were 
ready  for  operation  by  1891. 

The  treatment  of  S'ewage  in  such  a  way  as 
to  render  it  practically  innocuous  is  carried 
out  on  so  colossal  a  scale  at  Barking  and  Cross- 
ness that  no  apology  is  needed  for  describing 
a  process  which,  though  unsavoury,  is  by  no 
means  devoid  of  interest.  The  diagram  of  the 
Barking  Outfall  Works,  reproduced  by  the 
kind  permission  of  the  London  County  Council, 
will  assist  the  reader  to  follow  the  course  of 
operations. 

On  its  way  from  Abbey  Mills  the  sewage 
passes  by  a  liming  station,  where  there  is  an 
elaborate  installation  of  machinery  for  churn- 
ing lime  and  water  together  to 
form  a  milk-coloured  liquid, 
containing  about  110  grains  of 
lime  to  the  gallon  of  water.  This  liquid  is 
run  into  the  crude  sewage  in  such  proportions 
that  there  shall  be  about  four  grains  of  lime  to 


Barking 
Outfall  Works. 


the  gallon  of  sewage,  which  means  the  con- 
sumption of  14,800  tons  of  lime  yearly  at  the 
Barking  works. 

A  further  addition  is  made  to  the  .sewage  of 
a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  grain  of  sulphate  to  the  gallon  of 
sewage — 3,300  tons  of  the  chemical  being  used 
in  a  year.  The  lime  and  irf)ii  to^^ether  pre- 
cipitate the  solid  matter. 

At  the  Barking  outfall  are  thirteen  precipi- 
tation channels,  varying  in  length  from  1,200 
to  860  feet,  and  30  feet  wide.  Their  united 
capacity  is  20,000,000  gallons. 

The    channels    are    separated      '^.^''"  a  ion 

Channels. 
from  one  another  by  walls,  and 

are  roofed  over.  At  the  sewer  end  of  each  are 
two  penstocks  or  inlet  valves  for  admitting  sew- 
age ;  at  the  other  end  is  a  weir  wall  over  which 
the  effluent — that  is,  the  clarified  sewage  after 
precipitation  of  the  heavier  matter — passes 
through  old  reservoirs  into  the  river.  The 
channels  are  closed  in  rotation  once  in  about 
sixty  hours — the  period  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  sewage  and  of  the  weather 
—  for  the  treatment  of  the  precipitated 
sludge. 

When  the  penstocks  of  a  channel  have  been 
shut,   the   top   water   is   drained   off   through 


VIEW    FROM   THE    INTERIOR   OP    A    NORTHERN 
OUTFALL   SEWER    DURING    CONSTRUCTION. 


THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    OF    LONDON. 


217 


The  Sludge. 


lowering  weirs  into  a  culvert  leading  to  the 
river.  When  all  the  top  water  is  gone,  the 
"wet  sludge"  left  is  pushed,  by 
means  of  large  squeeges,  alojj^g 
the  channel  to  the  sump  of  the  sludge  pumps. 
On  its  way  to  the  sump  the  sludge  traverses 
a  screen,   which  arrests  all  rags,   wood,   and 


down  the  river  to  a  point  called  the  Barrow 
Deep,  about  57  miles  below  Barking,  but  now 
deposit  the  sludge  in  the  Black  Deep,  about 
5  miles  further  out  to  sea,  over  a  length  of 
from  8  to  10  miles. 

The  sludge  vessels  are  loaded  through  hatch- 
ways in  two  cases,  in  others  through  a  cen- 


DISCHARGING    SLUDGE    INTO    STEAMER    AT    BARKING. 

other  things  which  might  damage  the  pumps. 
These  last  deliver  the  sludge  into  setting  chan- 
nels, where  a  further  deposition  of  the  solid 
matter  takes  place.  The  supernatant  "  liquor  " 
is  drawn  off  by  telescopic  weirs,  given  a 
stiff  dose  of  lime  and  iron,  and  returned  to 
the  sewer  to  pass  through  the  precipitation 
channel  again  with  other  sewage.  The  sludge 
is  then  pumped  into  overhead  tanks,  from 
which  it  runs  by  gravity,  or  is  pumped  from 
the  sludge  channels  direct  through  pipes,  into 
specially  constructed  tank  vessels,  holding 
about  1,000  tons  each,  which  formerly  steamed 


{Photo,  Pictorial  Agency.) 

tral  hopper.     At  the  bottom  of  a  hopper  are 
four  rectangular  valves,   each   governing  the 
inlet  to  one  of  the  four  compart- 
ments into  which  the  vessel's        ,,        . 

Vessels. 
tank  is  divided  by  a  longi- 
tudinal and  a  cross  bulkhead.  The  two  triple- 
expansion  500-horse-power  engines  are  aft  of 
the  tank.  Between  the  forecastle  and  the 
tank  is  a  large  water-ballast  tank  of  170  tons 
capacity.  Tlie  Burns,  the  latest  addition  to 
the  fleet,  is  fitted  with  electric  light  through- 
out, and  contains  a  saloon,  two  staterooms, 
bathrooms,  and  other  luxuries  which  one  would 


INTERIOR    OF    LOt's    ROAD    PUMPING    STATION    FOR    DEALING    WITH    STORM    WATER. 
The  eight  gas  engines  seen  in  the  picture  have  a  total  horse-power  of  1,880,  and  are  able  to  deliver  152,000  gallons 

per  minute  into  the  Thames. 

THE     BRIDGE     WHICH     CARRIES     THE     FIVE     LINES     OP    THE     NORTHERN    OUTFALL    SEWER    ACROSS    THE 

LONDON,    TILBURY,    AND    SOUTHEND    RAILWAY,    AT    A    POINT  JUST    WEST   OF   PLAISTOW   STATION. 


THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    OF    LONDON. 


219 


not  expect  to  find  on  a  vessel  designed  for 
such  a  purpose. 

A  vessel  is  able  to  discharge  its  1,000-ton 
burden  in  a  minimum  time  of  six  minutes. 
In  practice  the  operation  takes  about  an  hour, 

the  boat  steaming  along  at 
Dumping  the  ^^^.^^j  ^  ^^  meanwhile  to 
Sludge  at  Sea. 

distribute   the    sludge   over   a 

large  area.  The  sea- water  has  been  analyzed 
after  deposit  of  the  sludge  without  revealing 
any  traces  of  the  impurity,  nor  has  a  par- 
ticle of  sludge  been  discovered  on  the  shore  of 
the  Maplin  Sands.  This  proves  conclusively 
enough  that  all  organic  matter  must  be  well 
assimilated  by  the  Grerman  Ocean,  though  the 
sludge  carried  out  to  sea  armually  would 
suffice  to  cover  Hyde  Park  to  a  depth  of 
nearly  five  feet.  Each  of  the  sludge  ships  re- 
ports to  the  Mouse  Lightship  every  time  it 
passes  outward  or  inward  bound,  by  flags  in 
the  daytime,  by  flashed  Morse  signals  at 
night.  The  time  of  passing  the  Mouse  is 
noted  for  comparison  with  reports  sent  by 
the  London  County  Council  to  the  Thames 
Conservancy  (now  the  Port  Authority),  which 
body  is  also  informed  of  the  number  of  times 
each  vessel  is  loaded  at  the  outfall  works. 

The  effluent  from  the  sewage  is,  when  it 
passes  into  the  Thames,  remarkably  clear  and 
transparent.  In  fact,  it  has  been  said  that 
it  is  the  clearest  water  that  enters  the  Thames 
below  Richmond.  Fish,  which  previously  to 
the  establishment  of  the  precipitation  works 
did  not  come  farther  up  the  river  than  Graves- 
end,  now  pass  up  to  London  Bridge — a  strik- 
ing testimony  to  the  improvement  effected  by 
the  new  system  of  sewage  disposal. 

The  outfall  works  at  Crossness  are  in  prin- 
ciple identical  with  those  at  Barking  as  regards 
both  their  arrangement  and  the  treatment  of 
sewage,  but  more  compact.  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  whereas  on  the  north 
side  of  the  river  all  the  sewage  flows  by  gravi- 
tation from  Abbey  Mills  to  the  precipitation 
channels,  at  Crossness  it  has  to  be  pumped. 


New  Sewers. 


Recently  two  new  sowers,  each  9  feet  by 
9  feet,  have  been  added  to  the  northern  outfall 
sewer  between  Old  Ford  and  Barking,  and 
are  now  in  use.  These,  like 
the  old  culverts,  are  carried 
in  embankment  some  20  feet  above  the  sur- 
rounding district,  and  cross  over  numerous 
roads,  railways,  and  water-ways  by  means  of 
iron  tubes  carried  on  girders  and  supported 
by  abutments.  A  new  middle-level  sewer, 
which  will  discharge  by  gravity,  is  being  made 
from  Willesden  to  Old  Ford,  a  distance  of 
nine  miles  ;  and  a  new  low-level  sewer,  12^ 
miles  long,  is  under  construction  between 
Hammersmith  and  Bow.  On  the  south  side 
of  the  river  a  new  outfall,  11  ^  feet  in  diam- 
eter, now  runs  from  Deptford  to  Crossness, 
and  a  new  high-level  sewer  from  Cat  ford  to 
Crossness.  Plans  have  been  drawn  up  for  an 
additional  low-level  sewer  between  Battersea 
and  Deptford.  The  map  on  page  210  shows 
the  positions  of  all  the  intercepting  and  out- 
fall sewers  quite  clearly. 

The  older  intercepting  outfall  sewers  were 
made  of  brickwork,  either  in  cut-and-cover 
tunnel  or  in  embankments,  according  to  the 
level  of  the  ground  surface. 
For    the    new    northern    low- 


Sewer  Con- 
struction. 


level  intercepting  sewer  the 
tunnelling  shield  and  a  cast-iron  lining,  con- 
creted on  the  inside,  have  been  used.  In 
fact,  its  construction  differs  little  from  that 
of  the  tunnels  of  a  tube  railway  except  that 
the  spaces  between  the  flanges  of  the  cast- 
iron  lining  are  filled  in  and  rendered  to  a 
smooth  surface.  The  cross-section  of  the 
intercepting  sewers  increases  gradually  east- 
wards. Thus,  the  old  middle-level  begins 
with  a  4 J  by -3  feet  section  at  the  western 
end.  North  of  Kensington  Gardens  the  figures 
increase  to  6  feet  by  4  feet.  Abreast  of 
London  Bridge  there  is  a  9-foot  barrel ;  and 
by  the  time  the  junction  with  the  high-level 
sewer  at  Old  Ford  is  reached  the  dimensions 
have  risen  to  9i  feet  by  12  feet. 


contractor's  electric  tram  in  the  southwark  and  bermondsey  sewer, 
shield  used  for  driving  the  new  southwark  and  bermondsey  relief  sewer; 

{Photos,  E.  MUnerJ} 


THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    OF    LONDON. 


221 


At  present  the  outfalls  have  a  total  dis- 
charging capacity  for  sewage  and  rain  water 
of  1,000,000,000  gallons  a  day.  In  addition, 
pumping  power  has  been  provided  for  lifting 
456,000,000  gallons  a  day  of  rain  water  from 
the  storm  overflows  into  the  river 

The  sewers  under  the  control  of  the  London 
County  Council  (of  which  Mr.  Maurice  Fitz- 
maurice,  C.M.G.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  is  chief  en- 
gineer, Mr.  J.  E.  Worth,  M.Inst.C.E.,  district 
engineer,  having  charge  of  the  district  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Thames,  and  Mr.  R. 
M.  Gloyne,  M.Inst.C.E.,  of  that  south  of 
the  river),  are:  216  miles  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Thames  and  129  miles  on  the 
south,  making  a  total  of  345  miles  of  main 
and  intercepting  sewers.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  addition  to  the  above  there 
are  all  the  sewers,  one  in  each  street,  which 
discharge  into  the  main-line  sewers  These 
local  sewers  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Borough  Councils,  and,  although  small,  are, 
of  course,  of  considerable  length,  totalling  in 
the  aggregate  about  2,000  miles. 

The  men  who  work  in  the  sewers  are  called 
"  flushers " — though    not    much    flushing,    in 
the   general   acceptation   of   the  term,    is  re- 
quired  where   the    flow    is   so 

The  Sewer-    considerable    as    that    in    the 
men's  Duties.  „         .,,  ttu  • 

Council  s    sewers.     The    prm- 

cipal  duties  of  these  men  are  to  remove  the 
large  quantities  of  "  detritus  "—sand,  gravel, 
and  macadam — which  finds  its  way  into  the 
sewers  through  the  surface  gratings  and  street 
gullies.  Many  thousands  of  cubic  yards  are 
removed  annually.  This  work  is  generally 
carried  out  during  the  night,  and  involves 
some  difficulty  and  danger. 

The  large  flow  of  water  in  the  sewers  and 
the  possibility  of  a  sudden  influx  of  storm 
water  render  the  greatest  precautions  neces- 
sary. Life-lines  are  always 
kept  handy,  and  permanent 
safety-bars  are  built  into  the  sewers,  across 
which  they  are  placed  when  the  men  are  at  work. 


Other  dangers  arise  from  the  discharge  of 
hot  water  and  steam,  though  by  the  General 
Powers  Act  of  1894  manufacturers  are  pro- 
hibited under  penalties  from  releasing  into  the 
sewers  anything  of  a  temperature  higher  than 
110  degrees  Fahrenheit,  or  any  chemical  or 
manufacturing  refuse  that  might  involve  risk 
of  injury  to  the  men  working  underground. 

Again,  there  is  the  danger  connected  with 
the  possible  presence  in  the  sewers  of  in- 
flammable gases  and  of  the  waste  from  in- 
flammable liquids.  This  risk,  which  has  been 
considerably  augmented  by  the  great  number 
of  petrol-driven  vehicles,  is  guarded  against 
by  the  use  of  special  safety  lamps.  Thanks 
to  the  elaborate  precautions  taken,  accidents 
of  a  serious  character  are  very  few  in  number, 
and  the  health  of  the  men  is  generally  good. 
During  the  summer  months  all  the  sewers  are 
deodorized  as  much  as  possible  by  the  addi- 
tion to  the  sewage  of  quantities  of  perman- 
ganate of  potash,  carbolic  powder,  and  other 
disinfectants. 

The  chief  pumping  stations  for  dealing  with 
sewage   and   flood   water    are    interesting   on 
account  of  the  vast  volumes  which  they  have 
to     lift.       The     western     sta- 
tion, at  Pimlico,  on  the  north-       ^""'.^* 

,  '  Stations. 

ern   low-level   sewer,    contams 

four  single-acting  beam  engines  of  90  horse- 
power each,  with  steam  cylinders  of  37-inch 
diameter  and  8-foot  stroke.  Each  engine 
operates  two  pumps.  To  provide  for  possible 
breakdowns,  an  auxiliary  engine  of  120  horse- 
power is  kept  in  reserve.  The  whole  installa- 
tion is  able  to  lift  54,000,000  gallons  of  sewage 
a  day  1 8  feet  to  the  head  of  the  second  section 
of  the  sewer  running  to  Abbey  Mills,  The 
latter  pumping  station,  which  covers  about 
seven  acres  of  ground,  is  a  very  handsome  struc- 
ture both  inside  and  outside. 
The  engine-house  has  a  cruci- 
form shape,  each  of  the  four  arms  housing 
two  large  beam  engines,  with  beams  parallel 
to  one  another.     All  the  steam  cvlinders  are 


Abbey  Mills. 


222 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


SUBSTRUCTURE    OF    NEW   NORTHERN   OUTFALL   SEWERS,    NEAR    HIGH  STREET,    STJIATFORD; 


at  the  inside  end  of  their  respective  beams, 
arranged  symmetrically  round  the  centre  of 
the  building  under  the  dome.  The  total  horse- 
power  of  the  eight  engines   is   about    1,100, 


In  a  separate  building  of  later  date  two  triple- 
expansion  Worthington  engines  have  been  in- 
stalled, to  make  the  total '  power  available 
at  this  station  sufficient  to  raise   171,000,000 


and  their  capacity  135,000,000  gallons  a  day.       gallons  per  day    through  a  vertical   distance 


THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    OF    LONDON. 


223 


of  40  foet  from  the  low-level  sewers  into  the 
outfall  sewer.  As  at  the  Western,  Crossness, 
and  Deptford  pumping  stations,  all  sewage  is 
passed  through  screens  before  it  reaches  the 
pumps.  From  year's  end  to  year's  end  some 
or  all  of  the  pumps  are  busy — busiest  during 
the  working  hours  of  the  day  and  when  rain 


addition  to  tlieso  engines  there  are  centri- 
fugal pumps  to  discharge  storm  water  into 
the  river  in  times  of  heavy  rainfall. 

Second  only  to  Abbey  Mills  in  pumping 
capacity,  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  is  the 
Lot's  Road  station,  Chelsea,  This  was  opened 
on  February  20,  1904. 


BRICKING    ARCH    OF    NEW    HIGH-LEVEL   SEWER    FROM    PLUMSTEAD    TO    CROSSNESS. 


{Photo,  E.  Milner.) 


falls  heavily,  idlest  during  the  small  hours  of 
the  morning. 

The  drainage  of  the  isolated  portion  of 
North  Woolwich  (Silvertown),  which  com- 
prises also  parts  of  West  and  East  Ham,  is 
dealt  with  at  a  station  in  that  area,  known 
as  the  North  Woolwich  pumping  station. 
Here  there  are  three  vertical  triple-expansion 
engines  capable  of  discharging  4,500,000  gal- 
lon^ per  day  through  two  14-inch  diameter 
pipes   into   the    Barking   outfall   works.      In 


A  sewer — the  Counter's  Creek  Sewer — com- 
mences near  Kensal  Green,  and  runs  for  about 
4|  miles  in  a  southerly  direction,  draining  an 
area  of  about  5  square  miles, 
to  Lot's  Road,  where  it  dis- 
charges into  the  low -level  in- 
tercepting sewer.  In  times  of 
heavy  rain  the  Counter's  Creek  sewer  brings 
down  much  more  water — some  12,000  cubic 
feet  per  minute — than  the  low-level  inter- 
cepting sewer  can  deal  with  ;  hence  the  neces- 


Lot's  Road 
Pumping: 
Station. 


224 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


sity  to  lift  this  water  into  the  Thames.  The 
Lot's  Road  station  contains  eight  large  cen- 
trifugal pumps,  able  to  discharge  each  3,200 
cubic  feet  (about  19,000  gallons)  a  minute, 
rope-driven  by  twin-cylinder  gas  engines  built 
on  the  "  Otto  "  principle.  Four  of  the  engines 
develop  260  horse-power  ;  four,  210  horse- 
power. The  more  powerful  engines  pump 
from  the  Counter's  Creek  sewer,  the  others 
from  the  low-level  intercepting  sewer,  into 
the  Thames.  Compressed  air  is  used  to  charge 
the  pumps  with  water  and  start  the  engines. 
Twenty  to  thirty  minutes  suffice  to  get  all  the 
pumps  to  work.  When  steam-power  is  used 
at  a  storm-water  pumping  station — as  in  the 
Isle  of  Dogs — the  fires  must  be  kept  banked 
ready  for  any  emergency,  a  course  which 
entails  heavy  expense  in  fuel  ;  whereas  the 
gas  engine  is  ready  to  start  at  a  moment's 
notice,  and  costs  nothing  when  not  running. 
Therefore  it  is  improbable  that  any  more 
steam  engines  will  be  installed  for  dealing 
with  the  discharge  of  storm  water  into  the 
river  in  future. 

Adjoining  the  Deptford  Creek  is  the  Dept- 
ford  pumping  station,  in  which  are  six  main 
pumping  engines  capable  of  raising  193,000,000 
gallons  of  sewage  daily  to  a  height  of  about 

20  feet. 

At    Crossness — where,    as    we    have    stated 
already,    all   the    sewage   from   the    southern 
district  has  to  be  lifted — is  the  largest  of  the 
pumping    installations.     Here 
Crossness      ^^.^  gj^  engines,  of  which  four 
Pumping  ,  , 

Station         ^^®  beams  and  two  triple-ex- 
pansion vertical  engines.     The 
total  pumping  capacity  of  these  six  engines  is 
250,000,000  gallons  per  day.     The  lift  is  about 

21  feet.  Each  of  the  beam  engines  has  two 
pump  plungers  9  feet  in  diameter,  which  prob- 
ably makes  them  the  largest  pump  plungers 
in  the  world  as  regards  diameter. 

In  addition  to  the  stations  mentioned  above 
are  those  for  dealing  with  storm  water  at 
fleathwall,  Nine  Elms  Lane,  King's  Scholar's 


Figures. 


Pond,  Pimlico,  Falcon  Brook,  Battersea,  and 
Shad  Thames,  Bermondsey.  Plans  for  a 
storm-water  pumping  station  at  Abbey  Mills, 
capable  of  raising  150,000  gallons  a  minute, 
are  in  course  of  preparation. 

The  problem  of  draining  London  has  indeed 
been  a  difficult  one  to  handle,  but  it  has  been 
solved  in  a  most  masterly  and  efficient  man- 
ner. At  the  beginning  of  this 
century  about  5,140,000  people 
inhabited  the  area  to  be  drained  * — the  total 
has  increased  considerably  since  then — a  popu- 
lation equal  to  that  of  Glasgow,  Liverpool, 
Manchester,  Salford,  Leeds,  Birmingham,  Shef- 
field, Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Bristol,  Hull,  Dub- 
lin, Belfast,  and  Edinburgh  combined — or,  in 
other  words,  to  eight  times  that  of  Glasgow. 
Every  day  of  last  year  an  average  volume  of 
nearly  300,000,000  gallons  of  sewage  had  to 
be  treated  at  Barking  and  Crossness,  and  all 
the  huge  amount  of  solid  matter  abstracted 
and  carried  out  to  sea.  It  is  indeed  difficult 
to  appreciate  the  vastness  of  the  work  and 
its  maintenance  for  which  the  London  County 
Council  is  responsible  in  connection  with  the 
sewage  of  the  Metropolis.  Despite  its  huge 
area  and  population,  London  is  one  of  the 
healthiest  cities  in  the  world  ;  and  that  this 
is  due  largely  to  the  excellent  drainage  must 
be  apparent  from  a  comparison  of  the  follow- 
ing death-rate  statistics  with  the  development 
of  the  drainage  works. 

Prior  to  1874 — in  which  year  Sir  Joseph 
Bazalgette's  scheme  of  intercepting  sewers 
was  completed^the  average  annual  death- 
rate  per  thousand  in  the  Metro- 
polis was  about  24.  During  ^ttect  of  Good 
the  decade  1871-80  the  figures  ^^  Death - 
fell   to    22' 5.      The  works   for  Rate. 

treating  sewage  chemically  and 
carrying   the   sludge    to    sea  were   completed 

*  This-  includes,  besides  the  county  of  London,  Acton, 
Wood  Green,  Tottenham,  West  Ham,  Penge,  and  parts  of 
Willesden,  Homsey,  East  Ham,  Croydon,  and  Beckenham — an 
area  of  about  31  square  miles.  The  total  area  drained  is 
about  150  square  miles. 


THE    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    OF    LONDON. 


225 


mi^ 

^^m 


CUT-AND-COVER    WORK    FOR    THE    NEW    SOUTHERN    HIGH-LEVEL    INTERCEPTING    SEWER,    BETWEEN 

CATFORD    AND    BLACKHEATH. 

{Photo,  E.  Milner.) 


at  Barking  and  Crossness  in  1890  and  1891 
respectively.  The  decade  1891-1900  had  an 
average  death-rate  of  only  19*1  per  thousand  ; 
and  the  improvement  has  been  rapid  ever 
since.  Last  year  the  rate  had  fallen  to  the 
unprecedentedly  low  point  of  13- 8,  or  11  per 
thousand  less  than  in  1841-50.  Tliese  figures 
surely  speak  for  themselves  ;  and  Londoners 
have  little  reason  for  grudging  the  £11,000,000 


odd  spent  on  works  which  carry  away  foul 
water  and  matter  from  their  homes,  offices, 
factories,  and  streets. 

The  staff  engaged  on  the  drainage  works  of 
London  is  made  up  of  456  men  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Thames,  335  on  the  south  side,  and 
150  men  on  the  sludge  vessels — a  total  of  941. 
Tlieir  work  proceeds  night  and  day  inces- 
santly. 


[Thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  John  E.    Worth,  M.Inst.C.E.,  District  Engineer  in  charge  of 

the  Drainage  Work  on  the  north  side  of  tht.  Thames,  for  valuable  help  given  in 

connection  ivith  the  preparation  and  illustration  of  this  article.] 


a,408) 


15 


VOL.  in. 


m 


m 


Ul 


nrri 


THE  ELECTRIC 
POWER  STATIONS 

DON 


0^f72>         OF       'S'x^ 


'Sl 


J^^I^'^i^Vft-'^ 


m 


BY    E.    LANCASTER    BURNE,    A.M.Inst.C.E. 


Some 
Figures. 


VIEWED  collectively,  the  arrangements 
for  supplying  our  greatest  city  with 
electricity  are  almost  overwhelming 
in  their  magnitude.  Contained  within  some 
forty  power-stations  are  nearly  1,000  boilers 
and  over  500  engines  and  dynamos,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  various  pumps, 
coal-handling  appliances,  and 
other  accessories.  The  total 
horse-power  of  the  engines  is,  in  round  num- 
bers, two-thirds  of  a  million,  so  that  each 
inhabitant  is  represented  by  about  one-tenth 
of  a  horse-power,  which  is  the  equivalent  of 
his  own  best  muscular  effort.  To  distribute 
the  electric  current,  each  station  has  a  net- 
work of  from  100  to  200  miles  of  cable  ;  with 
a  few  the  length  is  even  greater. 

After  giving  these  preliminary  figures,  we 
will  consider  shortly  the  electrical  require- 
ments of  London,  before  examining  the 
methods  by  which  they  are  fulfilled. 

Although  electricity  is  now  used  in  many 
processes,  illumination  and  transmission  of 
power  are  its  chief  applications.  Electric 
lighting,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate, is  now  so  universal  that 
every  one  is  familiar  with  its 
extent.  Electrical  transmission  of  power  has, 
in  a  comparatively  few  years,  almost  revolu- 


Uses  of 
Electricity. 


tionized  travelling  in  London  ;  but  we  so  soon 
grow  accustomed  to  improvements  that  they 
are  usually  accepted  as  a  matter  of  course. 
Who  of  us,  however,  would  welcome  a  re- 
adoption  of  steam  locomotives  on  the  Dis- 
trict and  Metropolitan  Railways,  or  a  return 
to  the  times  when  "  tube "  railways  were 
not  ?  Again,  compare  the  modern  electric 
tramcar  with  the  horse-drawn  variety. 

The  route  length  of  electric  railways  in  and 
around  London  is  now  157  miles,  and  there 
are  approximately  160  miles  of  electrified 
tramway  track  ;  also  a  large  number  of  electric 
road  vehicles.  Add  to  these  the  innumerable 
electric  motors  operating  all  kinds  of  machin- 
ery— such  as  lifts,  printing-presses,  etc.,  many 
of  them  in  places  where  a  steam  engine  and 
boiler,  or  even  a  gas  engine,  would  be  inad- 
missible. The  enormous  current  required  for 
the  myriad  lights,  the  constant  and  heavy 
traffic,  the  multitude  of  motors  and  various 
other  appliances,  is  derived  almost  entirely 
from  the  public  supply. 

Three  general  systems  for  the  distribution 

of  electrical  energy  obtain  in 

London  ;  these  are  the  low-ten-     Systems  of 
,.  -     ,  .  ^  Distribution. 

sion  direct  current,  the  high-ten- 
sion alternating  current,  and  a  system  combin- 
ing the  two.    In  the  simplest  form  of  the  direct 


THE    ELECTRIC    POWER-STATIONS    OF    LONDON. 


227 


system,  electricity  is  generated  at  a  voltage  (or 
pressure)  somewhat  higher  than  that  required 
by  the  consumers'  lamps,  etc.,  as  there  is  a 
slight  loss  in  transmission.  This  method  is 
suited  for  very  short  distances  only,  as  the 
sectional  area  of  each  conductor,  or  main,  must 
be  sufficient  to  carry,  without  undue  resistance, 
a  current  or  quantity  of  electricity  equal  to 
that  used  at  the  lamps.  The  above  system, 
which  is  known  as  the  "  parallel,''^  has  been 
almost  altogether  superseded  by  the  "  three- 
wire  "  system.  In  this,  electricity  is  gener- 
ated by  two  dynamos  joined  in  "  series  " — i.e., 
two  of  their  terminals  are  connected  so  that 
the  current  passes  through  both  machines. 
This  arrangement  doubles  its  pressure  but  does 
not  alter  the  quantity.  Two 
conductors,     which     may     be 


The  Three- 
wire  System. 


called  the  "  outer  "  wires,  are 
taken  from  the  remaining  terminal  of  each 
machine,  and  a  third  from  the  cable  which 
joins  them  in  series.  If  the  voltage  of  each 
dynamo  is,  say,  200,  the  pressure  at  the 
"  'positive  "  outer  conductor  will  be  200  +  200 
=  400  ;  that  of  the  middle  or  third  wire,  200  ; 
and  that  of  the  "  negative,''''  or  return,  outer 
wire,  0.  There  will  thus  be  a  potential,  or  pres- 
sure, difference  of  200  volts  between  each  two 
neighbouring  conductors.  From  this  it  will 
be  obvious  that  200-volt  lamps  may  be  con- 
nected to  the  third  and  to  either  one  of  the 
outer  conductors,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
potential  difference  of  the  two  outer  con- 
ductors is  400  volts.  The  importance  of  this 
is  that  the  capacity  of  the  two  outer  con- 
ductors is,  at  400  volts,  twice  as  great  as  it 
would  be  if  used  in  a  parallel  system  at  200 
volts,  because  their  sectional  area  is  pro- 
portional to  the  quantity,  and  not  to  the 
pressure,  of  the  current  they  have  to 
transmit.  A  higher  voltage  than  250 — the 
present  limit  of  the  ordinary  incandescent 
lamp  —  would  be  undesirable  for  domestic 
use.  Electric  motors  are,  however,  nearly 
always  "  wound  "  for  double  ths  lamp  volt- 


age, and  connected  to  the  outer  wires  of  the 
system. 

We  must  now  pass  on  to  the  alternating 
system    of    distribution.     The    difference    be- 
tween this  and  the  direct  system  is  that,  in- 
stead   of    a    continuous,    one- 
direction   current,   a   series   of     A'ternating 

,  ,  Current. 

currents,    moving    alternately 

in  opposite  directions,  is  set  up  in  the  con- 
ductors. Two  complete  reversals  form  a 
"  period "  or  "  cycle,''''  and  the  number  of 
these  cycles  varies  from  50  to  100  per  second. 
The  most  important  feature  of  the  alternating 
current  is  that  the  voltage  may  be  raised  or 
lowered,  and  the  current  diminished  or  in- 
creased in  the  inverse  ratio,  by  a  "  static " 
transformer,  which  is  a  simple  apparatus  con- 
structed upon  the  principle  of  the  induction 
coil,  but  containing  no  moving  parts. 

To  transform  a  high-tension  direct  current 
to  one  of  low  voltage  would  require  a  motor 
suited  to  the  high  voltage,  and  a  dynamo 
designed  to  give  a  lower  volt- 
age with  an  increase  in  cur- 
rent. In  other  words,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  convert  electrical  energy  into  mechanical 
energy  (by  the  motor),  and  reconvert  this  me- 
chanical energy  into  electrical  energy  (by  the 
dynamo) — a  somewhat  inconvenient  process 
compared  with  the  direct  method  of  the  static 
transformer.  Owing  to  the  facility  with  which 
the  voltage  of  an  alternating  current  can  be 
changed,  it  is  essentially  suitable  for  long- 
distance transmission,  as  will  be  seen  later. 

In  some  cases  the  tension  adopted  is  ex- 
tremely high  ;  for  instance,  at  the  Deptford 
station  of  the  London  Electric  Supply  Cor- 
poration the  current  is  generated  at  10,500 
volts  for  transmission  to  various  sub-stations, 
some  in  the  heart  of  the  Metropolis.  From 
the  sub-stations  the  current  is  distributed,  at 
a  reduced  tension,  by  the  network  of  street 
mains  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood. 
The  tension,  still  high,  is  further  reduced  at 
each  house  connection  by  a  small  transformer  in 


Transformers. 


6a 


THE    ELECTRIC    POWER-STATIONS    OF    LONDON. 


229 


Future 
Supply. 


the  basement.  In  this  way  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  energy  may  be  transmitted  by  means 
of  a  comparatively  small  wire,  and  a  vast  sav- 
ing effected  in  the  initial  outlay  on  that  ex- 
pensive metal,  copper. 

The  periodicity  of  the  current  supplied  from 
Deptford  is  85  ;  that  is  to  say,  a  "wave  "  of 
electricity  flows  back  and  forth  from  the  gen- 
erating station  through  the  whole  network  of 
mains  (about  160  miles)  and  the  wires  on  the 
consumer's  premises,  85  times  a  second. 

It  is  fairly  safe  to  prophesy  that  in  years 
to  come  the  existing  power-stations  in  Lon- 
don will  t€nd  to  become  merely  distributing 
centres  for  their  vicinity.  Huge 
power-stations,  far  from  the 
Metropolis,  in  places  where 
land  is  cheap,  and  fuel  and  water  more  readily 
obtained,  will  probably  supply  the  present  sta- 
tions with  high-tension  current  in  bulk.  Such 
a  scheme  was,  to  some  degree,  shadowed  forth 
in  a  recent  proposal  of  the  London  County 
Council ;  and  a  beginning  of  it  may  be  seen 
in  the  case  of  the  Central  Electric  Supply 
Company,  which,  from  a  generating  station  at 
Marylebone,  supplies  additional  current  to  the 
St.  James's  and  Pall  Mall  Electric  Light- 
ing Company  and  the  Westminster  Electric 
Supply  Corporation.  In  this  instance  a  high- 
tension  alternating  current  (6,000  volts)  is 
conducted  to  sub-stations  in  the  districts  of 
the  two  latter  companies,  at  which  it  is 
changed  to  a  low-tension  direct  current  for 
distribution  by  the  existing  three-wire  system. 

This  affords  an  example  of  the  combined 
system  of  distribution  previously  mentioned. 
The  conversion  at  the  sub-stations  of  alter- 
nating to  direct  current  is  accomplished  by 
causing  the  former  to  drive  an  alternating- 
current  motor,  the  shaft  of  which  is  coupled 
to  a  direct-current  dynamo.  Such  a  com- 
bination is  termed  a  "  motor-generator .'''' 

The  question  now  arises,  why  should  direct 
current  be  used  in  some  districts  and  the  alter- 
nating   in    others,    when    the    conditions    are 


about   the  same  throughout  ?      Perhaps    the 
best  answer  that  can  be  given  is  that,  in  the 
early  days  of  commercial  elec- 
tricity,   lighting    formed    the     Alternating: 

,  .  r  1       •            c          r.'  I.  and  Direct 
chief  busmess,  for  which  pur- 

^  Currents 

pose    direct    and     alternating  ly^iiy  needed. 

currents  were  equally  suitable, 
apart  from  the  advantages  possessed  by  the 
latter  in  regard  to  transmission.  But  when  the 
electric  motor  came  to  be  applied  to  industry, 
a  stimulus  was  given  to  the  direct-current  sys- 
tem, as  the  alternating-current  motor  had 
not  then  been  developed  on  practical  Lines. 
Further,  it  was,  and  still  is,  impossible  to 
charge  secondary  batteries  with  an  alternating 
current.  By  the  use  of  a  rectifier,  however, 
an  alternating  current  can  be  changed  to  a 
direct  current  for  that  purpose. 

The  difficulties  connected  with  alternating- 
current  motors  have  now  been  overcome,  but 
a  change  of  system  would  be  attended  with 
inconvenience,  so  that,  although  alternat- 
ing current  is,  in  some  cases,  supplied  by 
trunk  mains  to  the  sub-stations  of  direct-cur- 
rent systems,  it  is  converted  before  its  distri- 
bution through  the  network.  Occasionally — 
for  example,  the  North  and  the  South  Metro- 
politan Electric  Light  and  Power  Companies, 
which  supply  a  large  suburban  area — gener- 
ating plant  for  both  alternating  and  direct 
currents  is  installed  at  the  power-station. 

It  is  some  twenty  years  since  the  public 
supply  of  electricity  was  commenced  in  Lon- 
don, and  power-stations  are  still  being  erected. 
Many  improvements  have  taken  place  during 
this  period,  and  although  London  is,  in  the 
opinion  of  most  people,  adequately  supphed 
in  this  respect,  the  result  is  due  not  to  any 
one  general  scheme,  but  to  a  gi-eat  number  of 
small  schemes  carried  out  in  many  ways,  and 
owned  by  various  companies  and  authorities. 

To  describe  adequately  the  manner  in  which 
the  Metropolis  is  supplied  with  electricity  would 
require  a  more  or  less  detailed  account  of  each 
of  the  thirty-four  areas  supplied  by  the  several 


230 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


lighting  companies  and  borough  councils  of 
Greater  London.  Most  of  the  tramways  and 
electric  railways  have  their  own  generating 
stations,  but  some  purchase  current  in  bulk 
from  the  supply  companies.  Thus  the  Metro- 
politan Electric  Tramways  derive  their  cur- 
rent from  the  North  Metropolitan  Electric 
Power  Supply  Company,  and  the  newly  elec- 
trified South  London  line  of  the  London, 
Brighton,  and  South  Coast  Railway  Com- 
pany will  be  supplied  with  energy  by  the 
London  Electric  Supply  Corporation. 

Five  electric  railways — namely,  the  "  Baker- 
loo,"  the  "  District,"  the  "  Great  Northern  and 
City,"  the  "  Hampstead,"  and  the  "  Picca- 
dilly " — are  worked  from  one  generating  sta- 
tion ;  and  to  these  systems  will  be  added  others 
authorized  but  not  yet  constructed.  As  this 
station  is  one  of  the  most  modern  and  by  far 
the  largest  in  London,  we  propose  to  take  it 
as  an  example,  and  to  describe  it  at  some 
length. 

This  immense  power  "  factory "  occupies 
nearly  four  acres  of  land  adjoining  the  Thames 
at  Chelsea.  On  account  of  its  four  lofty  chim- 
neys, which  are  each  275  feet 

Lots  Koad      high,. it  is  a  very  conspicuous, 
Power" 
4,.   . .  if  not  picturesque,  object  in  the 

landscape,  and  some  one  has 
compared  its  general  appearance  to  an  inverted 
table  of  Gargantuan  proportions. 

The  site,  Chelsea  Creek,  is  a  fortunate  one, 
as  it  is  fairly  well  placed  relatively  to  the  elec- 
tric railways  concerned,  and  at  the  same  time 
has  the  advantages  of  a  river 


Coaling 
Facilities. 


frontage  and  proximity  to  the 
West  London  extension  of  the 
North-Western  Railway.  Coal  can  therefore 
be  delivered  by  water  or  rail,  and  special  facil- 
ities exist  for  handling  it.  In  the  case  of 
water-borne  coal,  the  barges  are  received  into 
a  tidal  basin,  spanning  which  are  two  travel- 
ling cranes,  each  fitted  with  a  1-ton  "  grab." 
After  being  picked  up  by  the  grab  and  raised 
from  the  barge,  the  coal  is  weighed,  and  dis- 


charged on  to  a  travelling  belt,  which  conveys 
it  to  the  elevators.  These  elevators  raise  the 
coal  to  the  top  of  the  building — 140  feet — for 
distribution  to  the  bunkers  by  another  set  of 
belt  conveyors,  which  discharge  their  load 
automatically  into  any  one  of  a  number  of 
large  bins.  When  brought  by  rail,  the  coal  is 
tipped  from  the  wagons,  and  then  elevated 
and  distributed  as  described.  From  the  bun- 
kers the  coal  is  fed  automatically  to  the  fur- 
naces. The  tidal  basin  gives  accommodation 
for  six  large  barges,  the  storage  capacity  of 
the  bunkers  is  15,000  tons,  and  the  plant 
can  handle  240  tons  of  coal  per  hour.  The 
daily  consumption  will  eventually  be  about 
800  tons. 

Equally  complete  are  the  arrangements  for 
removing  the  ashes.  These  are  dropped  from 
the  hoppers  into  tip  wagons,  drawn  by  an 
electric  locomotive  to  the  water's  edge,  and 
there  discharged  into  barges. 

One  side  of  the  main  building  is  occupied 
by  sixty-four  water- tube  boilers,  and  space  is 
reserved  for  sixteen  more.  The  boilers  are  on 
two  floors,  with  the  coal  bun- 
kers above  and  the  ash  hop- 
pers below  ;  automatic  chain 
grates  feed  their  furnaces.  In  a  chain  grate 
the  fire-bars  consist  of  a  series  of  short  links 
assembled  to  form  a  wide  flat  chain  of  iron. 
The  ends  of  this  chain  are  joined,  and  it  is 
carried  on  two  revolving  cylinders,  like  a  belt 
over  pulleys,  and  so  arranged  that  its  upper 
side  travels  slowly  through  the  furnace. ,  In 
this  way  the  coal  is  conveyed  from  the  bunker 
to  the  under-side  of  the  boiler,  consumed,  and 
reduced  to  ashes  by  the  time  its  journey  is 
completed. 

Before  entering  the  boilers  the  water  passes 
through  "  economisers.''^  These  consist  of  a 
great  number  of  tubes  placed 
in  the  flues  leading  to  the 
chimneys  in  order  that  the  water  may  absorb 
heat  from  the  waste  gases. 

The  generating  machinery  consists  of  eight 


Automatic 
Stokers. 


The  Boilers. 


THE    ELECTRIC    POWER-STATIONS    OF    LONDON.        231 


ONE   OF   THE    SIX    PARSONS    STEAM   TURBINES    INSTALLED    AT   THE    LOT'sS    ROAD    POWER-STATION, 

CHELSEA. 
Top  of  casing  removed  to  show  drum  and  blades.     Each  turbine  has  an  output  of  8,000  kilowatts  at  1,000  r.  p.m. 

(Photo,  Parsons  Steam  Turbine  Company,  Limited.) 


steam  turbines,  each  coupled  to  an  alternating 

current  dynamo,  which  combination  is  usually 

known  as  a  "  turbo-alternator.'' 

^  Each    machine   is    capable   of 

Generators.  ,     .  ,  \     ^      ^ 

producing,    at     normal    load, 

5,500    "  kilowatts"     We  should  remark  here 

that   the   Board  of   Trade  unit,  the  standard 

by  which    electricity    is    sold,   is   equal   to  1 

kilowatt  for  one  hour.     At  the  low  price  of 

one   penny  per   unit  the    gross  earnings  per 

machine  would  be   nearly   £25  an  hour.      As 

a  matter  of    fact,  the  output   stated  can    be 

exceeded   to   the   extent  of    50    per    cent,  if 

required,  and  space  is  provided  for  two  more 

sets  of  the  same,  and  one  of  half  the  capacity. 

With  the  extra  boilers  the  full  equipment  of 

the  station  will    therefore    consist  of    eighty 

boilers  and    eleven   turbo-generators,  with  a 

total  output  of    57,700  kilowatts  at    normal 


load.  Besides  this,  and  the  auxiliary  ma- 
chinery already  referred  to,  there  are  four 
"  exciter  "  sets  for  producing  the  direct  cur- 
rent needed  for  energizing  the  field  magnets 
of  the  alternators,  for  charging  batteries,  and 
for  other  purposes. 

In  conclusion  we  may,  in  imagination,  fol- 
low the  distribution  of  the  current  from  the 
station.  Grenerated  at  11,000  volts,  it  is  con- 
ducted through  285  miles  of  main  cables  in- 
sulated with  paper,  lead-sheathed,  and  drawn 
through  earthenware  conduits  laid  in  concrete. 
There  are  twenty-three  sub-stations  at  various 
points  on  the  different  railways.  At  each  sub- 
station the  high-tension  alternating  current  is 
reduced  from  10,000  to  370  volts,  and  then 
converted  to  a  direct  current  at  600  volts  for 
the  electric  locomotives,  each  of  wliich  is  fitted 
with  two  200  horse-power  motors. 


[Note. — The  writer  begs  to  express  his  indebtedness  to  Gar  eke' s  "  Manual  of 

Electrical   Undertakings  "  for  many  of  the  figures 

contained  in  this  article. '\ 


■tP  -w'  BI4P"lf  "If- 


UNDER   SLUICES    OF    THE    JHELUM    WEIR,    WITH    NEEDLE    DAMS    DOWN.' 


THE   GREAT  IRRIGATION   WORKS 

OF  INDIA. 

BY   AN    INDIAN    IRRIGATION    ENGINEER. 


IN  an  address  delivered  on  November  5, 
1901,  the  President  of  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers  said :  "In  England 
the  great  irrigation  works  of  India  are  seldom 
heard  of,  and  I  cannot  but  think  that  the 
magnitude  of  some  of  them  ...  is  but  little 
appreciated  even  by  many  members  of  our 
own  profession." 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  error  to  suppose 
that  all  crops  cultivated  in  India  are  irrigated 
artificially.  The  truth  is  that  out  of  the  aver- 
age area— about  226,000,000. 
acres — of  crops  sown  annually, 
13,000,000  acres  are  irrigated, 
with  great  labour,  from  wells, 
18,000,000  from  canals,  8,000,000  from  tanks, 
and  6,000,000  in  various  other  ways.    It  should 


Government 

Irrigation 

Works. 


be  added  that  of  the  total  nearly  15,000,000 
acres  are  watered  by  canals  constructed  en- 
tirely by  the  British  Government,  and  one- 
third  of  the  number  by  old  native  canals 
which  have  been  improved,  extended,  and 
maintained  by  it.  These  Government  works 
include  thirty  large,  or  "  major,"  and  seventy- 
three  "  minor  "  systems,  and  have  an  aggre- 
gate of  about  45,000  miles  of  canals  and  dis- 
tributaries. 

The  cost  has  been  heavy— some  £30,000,000. 
Yet  the  net  return  averages  about  seven  per 
cent,  on  the  capital  invested, 
which  is  satisfactory  alike 
to  the  Government  which 
laid  out  the  money,  and  to  the  engineers 
who  carried  out  the  work.     Even  more  satis- 


Their  Social 
Effect. 


THE    GREAT    IRRIGATION    WORKS    OF    INDIA. 


233 


i^k.^^ 


MAP 


SHOWING    ANNUAL    RAINFALL   OF   INDIA. 

Tho  figures  and  lines  indicate  the  number  of  inches  in  the  various 
districts. 


» 


50. 


% 


'o.    ''■■  '      -TTC* 


factory  has  been  »: 
the  social  effect    rt' 
of     the     works 
upon  the  people 
to  whose  needs 
they      minister. 
The  Swat  River 
Canal,  which  lies  in  a 
district  on  the  borders 
of    the    Punjab,    for- 
merly    the    home    of 
very  turbulent  frontier 

tribes,  did  more  in  ten  years  to  still  that  tur- 
bulence and  settle  the  people  quietly  in  the 
villages  than  could  have  been  effected  by  all 
the  police  of  the  Province  in  half  a  century. 
The  rulers  of  India  see  in  the  great  irrigation 
works,  not  only  a  sound  financial  investment, 
but,  what  is  far  more  important,  a  political 
force  and  a  powerful  and  beneficent  means 
of  convincing  the  agricultural  classes — far  the 
most  numerous  and  important  in  the  country 
—  that  Britain  rules  India  primarily  and 
emphatically  for  the  good  of  the  silent  and 
persevering  races  which  people  it. 

The  Indian  Irrigation  Commission  of  1901- 


Rainfall  of 
India. 


1903  estimated  that  of  the  gross  Indian  rain- 
fall 35  per  cent,  was  carried  by  the  rivers 
direct  to  the  sea,  59  per  cent, 
was  either  evaporated  from  or 
absorbed  by  the  soil  or  uti- 
lized in  sustaining  plant  life,  and  only  6  per 
cent,  was  used  for  artificial  irrigation.  It  is 
not  possible,  for  many  reasons,  to  utilize  the 
whole  of  the  35  per  cent,  which  now  flows  use- 
lessly to  the  sea,  as  a  large  proportion  of  the 
whole  surface  flow  of  India  runs  off  the  West- 
ern Ghauts,  which  slope  steeply  to  the  Arabian 
Sea,  south  of  Bombay.  But  as  time  goes  on 
more  and  more  of  it  will  be  entrapped  and 
turned  to  good  account. 

For  centuries  before  the  British  occupation 
irrigation  had  been  practised  in  India,  the 
same  systems  being  used  then 
as  now  —  namely,  perennial 
irrigation  with  water  led 
through  channels  tapping  a  river  far  above 
the  district  watered,   or  from   storage  reser- 


Irrigated 
Areas. 


234 


ENGINEERING    WONDEHS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


MAP 

SHOWING    THE    CHIEF    RIVERS    AND 
IRRIGATION    WORKS    OF    INDIA. 


voirs  or  tanks 

impounding 

the  surplus  of 

flood  time ;  and 

irrigation      by 

inundation    from 

canals     filled     only 

when   a  river   rises 

in  flood.    More  than 

half    of    the    total 

area     irrigated     in 

India  is  located  in 

the  Punjab,  and  in 

the  almost  rainless  tracts  of  Sind,  where  the 

rainfall  varies  from  two  to  about  five  inches  in 

the  year,  and  where  the  waters  of  the  Indus 

are  led  by  a  vast  number  of  inundation  canals 

over  the  thirsty  lands.     In  the  Punjab  the  five 

great  rivers  from  which  that  country  derives 

its  name  are  utilized  to  water  the  "  doabs  " 

between  the   streams,    on   which   the   annual 

rainfall  is  said  to  range  from  10  to  30  inches. 

Coming  to  the  schemes  which  have  been 
carried  out  by  modern  engineers,  we  select 
first  the  great  Chenab  Canal,  irrigating  the 
tract  between  the  Chenab  and  Ravi  rivers  of 


North-  West  Frontier  Proving 
Punjab — 

1.  Jhelum  Canal, 

2.  Chenab  Canal, 

3.  Ban  Doab  Canal,    . 

4.  Sirhind  Canal, 

5.  Western  Jumna  Canal, 
Other  canals,  . 

United  Provinces — 

6.  Upper  Ganges  Canal, 

7.  Lower  Ganges  Canal, 
Other  canals,  . 

Bengal — 

8.  Sone  Canals,   . 

9.  Orissa  Canals, 
Other  canals,  . 

Madras — 

10.  Godaveri  Canals,     . 

11.  Kistna  Canals, 

12.  Cauvery  Canals, 
Other  canals,  . 

Bombay  and  Sind — 

^Mainly  inundation  canals,  and 

to  a  small  extent,  reservoir 

systems, 

Burma — 

Canals,    . 
Other  Provinces — 

Canals  and  Reservoirs, 

Total  in  1906-1907, 


Total. 
187,000 


435,000 
1,570,000 
1,038,000 
1,198,000 

852,000 
1,602,000 

935,000 
924,000 
731,000 

564,000 

267,000 

72,000 

873,000 

664,000 

983,000 

1,112,000 


6,695,000 


2,590,000 


903,000 


—      3,632,000 


3,702,000 

952,000 

41,000 

18,702,000 


the  Punjab.    It  is  the  largest  and  one  of  the 
most  recent  of  Indian  irrigation  works — ^how 


THE    GREAT    IRRIGATION    WORKS    OF    INDIA. 


235 


...-■       .-^ 

I 

■^-^ 

— \ 

^^^^^^^J^-' 

n 

j 

5 

^       •"Tm 

..«*       ''**''^ 

y     "^ 

ini 

[^8BBP^^^«^^ 

....  •    iilM 

The  Chenab 
Canal. 


HYDRAULIC    WEIR    SHUTTERS. 

In  the  foreground  is  a  self-acting  shutter,  which  falls  when 
the  water  rises  to  a  certain  height.  It  has  hydraulic  brakes 
at  the  back  to  break  the  shock  as  the  gate  rises.  In  the 
background  is  a  front  shutter,  erect,  holding  up  10  feet  of 
water. 


large  is  not  easily  realized.  The  river  Thames, 
when  it  overflows  its  banks  and  floods  the 
adjacent  country,  swirling 
through  bridges  in  a  torrent 
and  inundating  some  of  the 
valley  towns,  carries  about  10,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  The  Chenab  Canal,  when  doing  its 
utmost,  but  so  silently  and  peacefully  as  to 
look  placid  as  compared  with  the  rushing, 
hurrying  Thames,  carries  11,000  cubic  feet  per 
second — that  is,  more  than  the  Thames  in  its 
angriest  mood.  The  canal  is  i50  feet  wide  at 
the  base,  and  when  full  has  a  depth  of  11 
feet.  These  are  the  dimensions  at  the  head. 
From  that  point  the  channels  taper  down, 
spreading  and  branching  here  and  there,  until 
they  are  reduced  to  ditches  perhaps  only  18 
inches  or  a  foot  wide  at  the  base.  Tlie  whole 
system  comprises  some  2,800  miles  of  chan- 
nels, spreading,  like  the  veins  of  a  man's  hand, 
over  a  tract  of  country  little  less  than  4,650 
square  miles  in  extent — almost  one-tenth  the 
area  of  England,  and  half  the  cultivated  area 
of  Egypt. 

This  large  area  was  all  Crown  waste  land 


Canal  has 
done. 


before  the  canal  was  made.  A  part,  well 
wooded,  with  three  or  four  kinds  of  jungle 
growth,  bore  a  good  crop  of 
grass  after  a  favourable  rain ;  ^  ,  ^ 
and  on  this  nomadic  tribes,  the 
only  inhabitants,  pastured  their 
cattle  at  certain  times  of  the  year.  A  small 
scrub  and  camel  thorn  covered  some  of  the 
land.  By  far  the  larger  portion  was  abso- 
lutely barren,  a  country  of  mirages  which  often 
deceived  the  engineers. 

Into  such  a  region  400  miles  of  main  canals 
and  about  1,400  miles  of  distributaries  now 
conduct  the  volume  of  water  mentioned  above. 
The  main  canals  and  the  branches  run  on  the 
main  ridges,  and  the  larger  distributaries — 
some  of  considerable  size,  and  passing  500 
cubic  feet  a  second — keep  to  the  main  water- 
sheds. Two  million  acres  of  crops  now  grow 
annually  on  the  lands  which  once  were  waste 
and  sterile. 

As  the  tract  irrigated  by  the  Chenab  Canal 
was  originally  uninhabited,  villages  had  to  be 
formed  and  settlers  introduced.  The  special 
colonization  officer  appointed  had  to  survey 
his  vast  estate,  and  lay  it  out  in  villages  and 
in  holdings  of  convenient  size.  The  system 
adopted  was  to  divide  the  whole  district  into 
squares  of  25  or  27  acres,  each  square  having 
its  individual  supply  of  irrigation  water. 


HYDRAULIC    WEiS  I     BOTH   SHUTTERS    DOWN. 


236 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


The  laying  out  was  a  very  arduous  task. 

The  survey  parties  had  to  work  across  vast 

stretches  of  totally  uninhabited  country,  where 

the  only  source  of  water  might 

Laying  out     ^^    ^   brackish   well    100   feet 

the  Chenab       ,  ,       ,  ,. 

/-       1  cr     J.         deep,   and  where  no   supplies 

Canal  System.         ^'  V 

of  any  kind  could  be  obtained. 

It  was  often  necessary  to  remain  in  the  field 
throughout  the  hot  season,  when  the  tempera- 


people    has    founded    homesteads    cultivated 
with  the  assistance  of  the  canal  waters. 

The  Chenab  River  usually  remains  fairly  full 
until  the  middle  or  end  of  October,  and  suffices 
to  irrigate  the  sowings  of  the  winter  crop. 
But  later  in  the  season  the  available  dis- 
charge sometimes  falls  as  low  as  4,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  rising  suddenly,  when  a  freshet 
comes  down,  to   10,000  cubic  feet.     Arrange- 


MAP   OF   THE    CHENAB    RIVER    AND    CANAL    SYSTEM. 

Escape  reservoirs  marked  in  solid  black.     The  water  is  turned  into  these  reservoirs  when  the  volume  is  greater  than 

the  canals  can  carry. 


ture  rises  to  over  110  degrees  Fahrenheit  in 
the  shade.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that 
under  these  circumstances  high  organization 
and  much  energy  and  determination  were  re- 
quired from  all  concerned  in  the  work. 

The  survey  completed,  there  followed  the 
task  of  dividing  the  tract  into  villages  of  con- 
venient size,  averaging  the  gross  area  of  1,500 
to  2,000  acres.  The  main  principle  was  that 
the  lands  in  each  village  should  be  irrigable 
from  its  own  separate  water-course.  Each  of 
these  water-courses  is  supplied  direct  from  a 
Government  channel  ;  so  that  all  disputes 
that  may  arise  are  confined  to  the  village  it- 
self, or  lie  between  the  villagers  and  the  Gov- 
ernment. Since  the  Chenab  Canal  was  opened 
more  than  one  and  a  half  million  acres  of 
Crown  land  have  been  allotted  to  settlers,  and 
a    new   population  of   more   than    1,000,000, 


Escape 
Reservoirs. 


ments  therefore  have  to  be  made  for  distribut- 
ing 4,000  feet  one  day  and  10,000  the  next. 
It  has  been  found  necessary  to 
have  canal  telegraph  lines  run 
in  all  directions  to  control  the 
distribution.  This  telegraph  system  is  doubly 
useful  when,  after  an  unexpected  fall  of  rain, 
there  is  a  sudden  reduction  in  the  demand  for 
water  in  the  fields.  One  can  easily  appreciate 
the  anxiety  of  an  engineer  who  learns  that  the 
canal  is  bringing  down  300  tons  of  water  a 
second,  and  that  he  must  dispose  of  it.  If 
there  be  no  escapes  for  the  water,  and  the 
cultivators  decline  to  run  it  on  to  their  fields, 
he  knows  that  the  canal  must  burst  its  banks. 
On  most  Indian  canals  there  are  facilities  ior 
letting  off  surplus  water,  but  in  the  case  of 
the  Chenab  Canal  the  main  courses  are  so  far 
from  the  rivers  that  the  provision  of  escapes 


238 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


^"W^^^^i^^- 


HEAD-WORKS    OF   THE    SIRHIND    CANAL   ON   THE 
SUTLEJ    RIVER. 

back  into  rivers  at  the  points  where  they  are 
needed  is,  in  most  cases,  impossible.  As  an 
alternative,  several  depressions  in  the  ground 
have  been  surrounded  with  earthen  banks  to 
form  reservoirs,  into  which  a  portion  of  the 
discharge  can  be  turned  in  an  emergency.  The 
water  in  them  soon  dries  up,  and  leaves  them 
free  for  further  use.  They  are  planted  with 
trees,  and  form  little  forests  as  well  as  escape 
reservoirs. 

At  the  head-works  of  the  Chenab  Canal  the 
river  is  about  3|  miles  broad — broader  than  is 
necessary  for  the  discharge  of  the  floods.     In 

the  bed  of  the  river  has  been 

The  Chenab    r.    i.  .1.     i    u  ^1 

.  built  a  weir   to   hold  up   the 

water  as  much  as  12  feet  above 
low- water  level.  The  weir  itself  is  only  4,000 
feet  long,  but  over  it  the  whole  discharge  is 
compelled  to  pass  by  a  system  of  training 
walls.  Measured  in  the  direction  of  the  stream 
it  is  250  feet  wide.  The  crest  is  of  masonry 
8  feet  high  and  broad,  with  its  base  generally 
but  4  feet  below  the  original  summer  level 
of  the  river.  Forty  feet  up-stream  of 
this  wall  a  masonry  curtain  wall  has  been 
sunk  20  feet  into  the  bed,  to  prevent  under- 
mining.     The   weir    is    divided    by   masonry 


piers  into  eight  bays,  each  500  feet  wide. 
Between  the  piers,  on  the  crest  of  the  wall, 
are  rows  of  vertical  iron  shutters,  the  con- 
struction and  action  of  which  may  be  taken 
as  typical  of  all  those  now  generally  employed 
on  Indian  weirs.  The  shutters,  6  feet  high, 
3  feet  broad,  and  made  of  xV-inch  steel  plat- 
ing stiffened  with  angle  iron,  stand  side  by 
side  in  a  continuous  row  between  the  piers. 
Heavy  double  hinge  blocks  placed  between 
two  adjacent  gates  are  bolted  down  to  the 
masonry.  Three  feet  up-stream  of  each  shutter 
a  tie  rod  is  hinged  to  the  crest 
of  the  weir  ;  its  other  end  slides 
in  a  groove  on  the  nearer  face 
of  the  gate,  and  is  fitted  with  a  hook  which 
falls  automatically  into  a  slot  when  the  gate  is 
erect  and  is  caught  by  a  trigger  on  the  down- 
stream face  of  the  gate.  To  let  the  shutter 
fall,  this  trigger  is  knocked  to  one  side  by  hand 
or  mechanically,  and  the  shutter  is  laid  flat 
by  the  pressure  of  the  water  behind.  For 
raising  the  shutter,  a  crane,  running  along  the 
crest  of  the  weir  behind  the  shutters,  is  pro- 
vided. It  is  not  often  needed,  however,  as 
three  men  can  easily  lift  a  shutter  in  three 


Weir 
Shutters. 


ONE  BAY  OP  THE  HEAD  REGULATOR  (tO  LEFT) 
AND  ONE  BAY  OF  THE  HEAD  SLUICES  (tO  RIGHT) 
OF  THE  SIRHIND  CANAL. 

The  regulator  has  a  masonry  sill  to  keep  out  of  the  canal 
the  heavy  silt  which  is  carried  at  the  bottom  of  the  stream, 
and  formerly  caused  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  Each  sluice  has 
three  iron  gates — ^an  upper,  a  middle,  and  a  lower — working  in 
separate  contiguous  grooves,  so  that  the  water  may  be  let 
through  at  any  level  required. 


THE    GREAT    IRRIGATION    WORKS    OF    INDIA. 


239 


HEAD    BUNDS,    OR    TEMPORARY    DAM,    OP   THE    GANGES    CANAL,    LOOKING    UP-STREAM. 

The  construction  of  the  bunds  is  described  in  the  letterpress. 

minutes  by  hand  against  2|  to  3  feet  of  water.  the   gross    revenue    derived  from  it  is  about 

Only  when  the  last  two  or  three  have  to  be  £500,000  annually  ;  the  value  of  crops  raised 

raised,  and  the  pressure  of  the  water  has  in-  on  the  land  watered  by  it  was  in   1907  over 

creased  greatly,  are  mechanical  means  neces-  £2,500,000.      These  figures  show  conclusively 

sary.  whether  the  expenditure  has  justified  itself. 
The  Ghenab  Canal  system  cost  £2,000,000;  The  natives  of  India  still  believe,  or  profess 


GOPULPUR  WORKS,  SHOWING  BRANCHING  AND  JUNCTION  OF  THE  GANGES  AND  LOWER  GANGES  CANAL. 


240 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Native 
Superstition. 


to  believe,  that  when  the  British  Government 
is  about  to  commence  new  work,  especially  if 
it  be  a  work  of  some  magni- 
tude, that  the  heads  of  human 
victims  are  buried  below  the 
foundations,  the  heads  having  been  collected 
beforehand  by  emissaries  of  the  Government 
or  the  engineers.  On  one  occasion  there  was 
a  scare  of  this  kind  in  Dinapore,  near  Patna, 
at  the   inception   of   a   certain   scheme.     The 


the  Sikh  nation,  in  which  lies  the  holy  city 
of  Umritsir.  The  works  were  commenced  in 
1850,  and  now  irrigate  over  1,000,000  acres. 
During  the  early  period  of  the  annexation  of 
the  Punjab  large  bodies  of  disbanded  Sikh 
soldiers  constituted  a  possible  source  of  trouble 
to  the  authorities,  and  to  give  them  employ- 
ment and  permanent  homes  this  canal  was 
projected  and  completed  in  part  by  1859. 
At  that  time  the  canal  had  no  proper  head- 


r 


SLUICES    OF    THE    BARI    DOAB    CANAL,    UP-STREAM    SIDE. 

natives  gravely  asserted  that  an  order  had 
gone  forth  for  human  heads,  and  that  the 
soldiers  of  the  neighbouring  garrison  were  kill- 
ing men  to  obtain  the  necessary  material.  They 
were  so  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  story 
as  not  to  dare  to  stir  out  at  night  unless  two 
or  three  went  together.  Such  scares  as  this 
have  occurred  more  than  once,  and  may  serve 
as  examples  of  some  of  the  minor  difficulties 
with  which  the  engineer  has  to  contend. 


The  Bari  Doab  Canal,  in  the  Punjab,  which 
we  will  consider  next,  was  one 
of  the  first  of  the  large  irri- 
gation works  undertaken  by 
British  engineers.  It  waters  the  tract  lying 
between  the  Bias  and  the  Ravi— the  cradle  of 


The  Bari 
Doab  Canal. 


works,  and  the  control  of  the  water  was  in- 
efficient. So  permanent  head-works  were  com- 
menced during  1868,  when  a  weir  was  built 
across  the  river  Ravi,  which  supplies  the 
canal.  At  the  site  of  the  off-take  the  Ravi 
has  a  bed  of  boulders  of  coarse  shingle  and  a 
fall  of  about  20  feet  in  the  mile.  In  the  dry 
season  the  river  winds  from  side  to  side  of 
the  broad  bed,  a  limpid,  shallow,  swift  cur- 
rent of  little  width.  When  the  snows  melt 
and  the  monsoon  rains  fall  on  the  hills,  it 
becomes  an  angry,  turbid  flood,  by  which  the 
heavy  boulders  in  the  bed  are  borne  along. 

Across  this  river  the  engineers  built  a  weir 
rising  only  3  feet  above  the  bed.  High 
floods  rise  about  10  feet  over  the  crest.  The 
wall  is  built  of  boulders  set  in  good  mortar. 


THE    GREAT    IRRIGATION    WORKS    OF    INDIA. 


241 


The  engineers  had  to  protect  the  piers  and 

under  sluices  from  the  large  stones  swept  down 

by  the  current  by  sheathing  them  in  sheets 

of  iron. 

Owing  to  the  lack  of  that  experience  which 

has  been  gained  during  the  last  half  century, 

the  engineers  made  the  mistake  of  placing  the 

head  of  the  Bari  Doab  Canal  too 
A  Beautiful    ^,^^         ^^^  ^^^^^      rpj^^  ^.^^^j^^ 

Spot. 

have  been  costly,  but  beautiful. 

In  the  first  twelve  miles  of  its  course  the 
canal  drops  more  than  200  feet  by  a  series 
of  cascades  and  rapids,  and  winds  between 
well-wooded  banks,  protected  by  stone  revet- 
ting at  curves,  in  a  comparatively  shallow 
stream.  The  velocity  of  the  current  is  high, 
and  the  water  sparkles  brightly  in  the  sun. 
It  is  as  pretty  a  piece  of  canal  scenery  as 
India  can  show. 

The   river    Ganges,  which  has  a  course  of 

more  than  1,500  miles,  and  a  catchment  basin 

extending  over  an  area   more 

^       ,  than  seven  times  the  size  of 

Canal. 

England,    is    bridled    at    two 

points  to  irrigate  the  fields  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces.    The  two  systems  have  quite  separate 


Buildins: 

Temporary 

Dams. 

passing    these 
In  this  very 


NARORA  WEIR,  LOWER  GANGES  CANAL. 

(l,-408) 


heads,  but  meet  at  a  certain  point.  Together 
they  include  6,500  miles  of  channels,  and 
irrigate,  in  some  years,  more  than  2,000,000 
acres  of  crops. 

The  head  of  the  Ganges  Canal  is  at  Hurd- 
war,  a  very  beautiful  place,  and  one  of  the 
most  holy  spots  on  the  most  sacred  of  Indian 
rivers.  The  canal  works  had 
to  be  carried  out  in  such  a 
manner  as  not  to  affect  the 
sacred  batliing  places  of  the 
Hindus,  although  a  channel 
spots  had  to  supply  the  canal, 
picturesque  channel  several  masonry  weirs  and 
escapes  have  been  built  to  regulate  the  stream. 
More  interesting  is  the  temporary  dam  con- 
structed during  the  dry  season  to  force  the 
waters  of  the  parent  stream  to  flow  down  the 
channel.  The  first  operation  in  the  making 
of  the  dam  is  to  fix  a  14-inch  rope  across  the 
river,  and  to  prop  it  up  at  intervals  so  that 
it  hangs  in  festoons.  Triangular  cribs  are 
made  on  the  bank  out  of  poles  bound  strongly 
together.  A  barge  picks  up  one  of  the  cribs 
by  means  of  a  derrick  hanging  over  the  stern, 
and  is  drawn  with  the  help  of  pulleys  run- 
ning on  the  main  rope  into  the  required  posi- 
tion on  the  line  of  the  dam. 
Then  the  crib  is  lowered 
gradually  on  to  the  bed  of  the 
river,  boulders  being  dropped 
into  it  as  it  descends,  so  that 
by  the  time  it  is  seated  its 
weight  suffices  to  keep  it 
steady.  It  is  then  lashed  to 
its  neighbour,  and  weighted 
with  more  boulders.  This 
operation  is  repeated  until  a 
line  of  cribs  extends  right 
across  the  river.  All  this  is 
done  in  a  stream  8  or  10  feet 
deep  in  places,  and  moving 
perhaps  12  feet  per  second. 
Next,  the  dam  is  raised  by 
boulders  dropped  uniformly 
VOL.  iir 


WATER    PASSING    OVER    WEIR 

16 


242 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THE    SOLANI    AQUEDUCT,    WHICH    CARR1 1  '  \        ;        ■        .1     <    \!         1      i        olaNI    RIVER. 

It  has  15  arches  of  50  feet  span,  is  195  feet  broad,  and  passes  a  stream  of  water  172  feet  across  and  9  feet  deep. 


into  the  cribs  till  its  top  is  at  the  level  of  the 
water  which,  during  construction,  had  been 
flowing  over  it. 

The  boulder  dam  when  complete  is,  of  course, 
very  leaky.  This  is  remedied  partially  by  sink- 
ing grass  mattresses  on  the  up-stream  face,  and 
throwing  on  to  them  boulders,  shingle,  and 
soil  until  an  almost  watertight  embankment 
has  been  formed,  to  direct  the  river  into  the 
channel  feeding  the  canal.  It  may  seem ' 
strange  that  so  primitive  a  structure  sHould 
be  a  mainstay  of  the  prosperity  of  a  large 
tract  of  country.  But  so  it  is,  and  the  canal 
has  worked  effectively  for  half  a  century. 

The  Ganges  Canal  has  a  maximum  capacity 
of  7,000  cubic  feet  a  second.  This  great  vol- 
ume of  water  is  carried  by  level  crossings 
through  some  rivers,  over 
others,  and  in  aqueducts,  the 


The  Solani 
Aqueduct. 


most  notable  of  which — that 
over  the  Solani — has  fifteen  arches  of  50-foot 
span,  is  195  feet  broad,  and  gives  passage  to 
a  stream  172  feet  broad  and  9  feet  deep.  We 
may  notice  that  in  some  cases  a  river  is  led 
over  a  canal ;    for  instance,  a  river  400  feet 


broad    and   9  feet  deep  in  flood   crosses   the 
Sirhind  Canal  at  a  height  of  24  feet. 

On   the   eastern   coast   the  rivers,   as  they 

approach  the  sea,   become  deltaic.     In  their 

lower  reaches  the  reduced  velocity  of  the  stream 

causes   the    matter   eroded  in 

swifter    upper    reaches    to   be  rorma- 

11  .       ,  T     1     1         tion  of 

deposited,  and  so  raises  the  bed        Deltas 

until  the  water  overflows.    The 

silt  is  then  deposited  on  the  land,  the  general 

level  of  which   rises  until  the  water  is  once 

more     confined.      This    process    is    repeated 

along   the   banks  and    at    the  river's   mouth 

until   a   great   fan-shaped   body  of  land   has 

been  pushed   out  into  the  sea,  traversed  by 

the  several  branches  into  which  the  river  has 

divided.     These  branches  run  along  the  ridges 

of  the  country,  a  condition  of  affairs  which  is 

ideal  for  irrigation. 

In  the  delta  of  the  Godaveri  a  weir  spans 

the  river  at  Dowlaishweran,  holds  up  the  level 

of  the  water,  and  compels  the  stream  to  flow 

into  three  main  canals.     These  supply  many 

branch    canals,    which   feed   many  more  dis- 


LAKE    WHITING,    AT    BHATGUR,    NEAR    I'OONA. 

The  Bhatgur  Dam,  shown  here,  impounds  over  5,000,<100,000  cubic  feet  of  water. 
LAKE   FIFE,    NEAR   POONA. 


244 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Qodaveri 

Delta  Canal 

System. 


MAP  OF  THE  GODAVERI  DELTA  CANALS. 

tributaries,  and  they  in  their  turn  supply 
thousands  of  villages  with  the  water  which 
matures  the  crops.  The  canals 
cost  somewhat  less  than  a 
million  sterling,  and  irrigate 
from  700,000  to  900,000  acres. 
They  owe  their  inception  to  the  genius  of  Sir 
Arthur  Cotton.  Commenced  in  1864,  they 
have  brought  wealth  to  the  people  of  the  delta. 

One  of  the  earliest  methods  of  irrigation  in 
India  was  from  surface  tanks,  which  are  found 
in  nearly  all  parts,  but  are  most  numerous  in 
Madras,  where  they  number 
33,000,  and  water  millions  of 
acres  of  rice  crops.  These  tanks  vary  in  area 
from  a  few  acres  to  nine  or  ten  square  miles. 

More  individually  important,  but  really  in 
the  same  class,  are  the  reservoir  systems,  which 
occur  chiefly  in  Bombay.  Nearly  all  the  tanks 
and  many  of  the  reservoirs  are 
formed  by  earthen  embank- 
ments thrown  across  local  drainages,  but  in 
some  cases  are  fed  from  intermittent  streams, 
storing  the  surplus  water  of  one  period  for  use 
at  a  later  season.  The  larger  works  have  been 
constructed  by  the  British  Government.  Some 
have  masonry  dams  varying  in  height  from 


Tanks. 


Reservoirs. 


100  to  162  feet,  built  across  a 
gorge  to  impound  the  water. 

The  most  interesting  of  these 
reservoir  systems  is  that  ema- 
nating from  the  Periyar  River, 
which        flows 

down  the  west-  „.   ^^^}y^^ 

,  .  River  System. 

ern     slope     oi 

the  Western  Ghauts  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  On  this  slope 
there  is  no  irrigable  land, 
whereas  on  the  eastern  slope 
there  is  plenty.  The  Periyar 
system  taps  the  river,  stores 
its  water  in  a  reservoir  on  the 
western  side  of  the  hills,  and 
leads  it  through  a  tunnel  right 
across  the  watershed  into  the  thirsty  plains 
of  Madura  in  Southern  Madras. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  this  under- 
taking is  the  concrete  dam,  1,241  feet  long  and 


MAP   OF   THE    BARUR   TANK   SYSTEM   IN    MADRAS. 
The  tanks  are  shown  as  shaded  areas. 


THE    GREAT    IRRIGATION    WORKS    OF    INDIA.         245 


THE    MARIKANAVE    DAM,    IN    MYSORE. 

It  is  able  to  impound  a  lake  of  40,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  with  a  greatest  depth  of  130  feet.     Length  of  dam,  1,350  feet. 


155  feet  high,  built  across  a  narrow  ravine  at 
a  point  where  the  Periyar  River   passes   be- 
tween two  hills.    The  reservoir 
The  Periyar    ^^^.^^^     .        -^     ^.^     contain 

Tunnel  13,300,000,000    cubic    feet    of 

water,  about  half  of  which  is 
available  for  irrigation.  This  proportion  is 
drawn  off  through  a  Stoney  sluice  gate,  and 
a  tunnel  over  a  mile  long  cut  through  the 
solid  rock,  into  the  channel  of  the  Vaigai 
River,  down  which  it  flows  86  miles  to  the 
plains,  where  it  is  distributed  by  means  of  a 
weir  and  an  ordinary  system  of  canals. 

In  the  Bombay  Presidency  are  many  reser- 
voirs. The  two  •  most  important  are  Lake 
Whiting  and  Lake  Fife.  The  first  of  these, 
formed  by  the  Bhatgur  dam,  contains  a 
gross  volume   of   5,313,000,000  cubic   feet  of 


Lake 
Whiting. 


water,  of  which  3,953,000,000  can  be  utilized. 
The  water  is  drawn  off  below  the  dam,  and 
flows  down  the  rocky  bed  of 
the  Nira  to  a  weir  which  di- 
verts it  into  a  system  of  canals. 
The  Bhatgur  dam,  of  masonry  and  concrete, 
is  3,020  feet  long,  127  feet  high  (maximum), 
and  76  feet  wide  (maximum)  at  the  base.  The 
catchment  area  of  the  basin  above  the  dam 
is  128  square  miles,  and  the  annual  rainfall 
on  this  area  varies  from  250  inches  in  the  hills 
to  40  inches  at  the  dam  site.  Heavy  rains 
cause  floods  of  50,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
and  to  pass  this  enormous  quantity  the  en- 
gineers have  constructed  two  waste  weirs  with 
a  clear  waterway  of  810  feet,  over  which  the 
water  passes  eight  feet  deep — a  truly  impres- 
sive waterfall. 


246 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Lake  Fife. 


The  waste  weir  of  Lake  Fife  is  even  larger 
than  those  of  Lake  Whiting,  for  it  is  able  to 
pass  75,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  On  its 
crest,  1,200  feet  long,  are 
eighty -eight  gates,  each  10  feet 
wide  and  8  feet  high,  working  on  a  unique 
principle.  The  gates  are  in  pairs,  the  heavier 
of  the  pair  opening  downwards,  the  lighter 
upwards.  When  the  heavy  one  rises  the  light 
one  falls  by  its  own  weight,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  descent  of  the  heavy  gate 
pulls  up  the  other.  The  gates  open  and  close 
automatically,  through  the  operation  of  a 
counterweight,  which  is  affected  by  changes 
in  the  level  of  the  water  passing  through  the 
weir.  This  ingenious  arrangement  dispenses 
with  the  necessity  for  working  the  gates  by 
hand  when  a  flood  occurs. 

The   Marikanave  reservoir  in   Mysore  is   a 
proof  of  the  interest  taken  by  the  native  ruler 
of  an  independent  State  in  works  of  improve- 
ment.      It    was    due    to    the 
Marikanave      energy  of  the  late  Sir  Sheshadri 
Reservoir  and    ^  i  ^^     ^i  x 

„  Iyer,  and  to  the  warm  support 

of  her  Highness  the  Maharani, 
that  this  great  enterprise  was  carried  out. 

The  reservoir  water  is  impounded  by  a  dam 
built  across  a  gorge  about  1,200  feet  wide  at 
the  crest  of  the  dam,  which  is  142  feet 
above  the  river  bed,  and  from  the  foundations 
has  a  maximum  height  of  167  feet.  The 
reservoir  will  store  a  depth  of  130  feet 
near  the  dam,  and  the  water  will  spread 
over  an  area  of  34  square  miles.  The  maxi- 
mum amount  that  can  be  stored  is  calculated 
at  40,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  but  such  a  quan- 
tity would  collect  only  after  unprecedented 
floods.  The  reason  why  the  ultimate  capacity 
is  so  greatly  in  excess  of  the  ordinary  volume 
(10,000,000,000  cubic  feet)  that  will  be  im- 
pounded is  interesting.  It  was  proposed  ori- 
ginally to  provide  a  capacity  of  20,000,000,000 
cubic  feet ;  but  as  a  cyclonic  rainfall  would  fill 
the  reservoir  and  require  a  large  escape  to 
save  the  dam,  it  was  found  to  be  cheaper  to 


increase  the  height  of  the  dam  and  enable  the 
reservoir  to  absorb  the  storm  waters  instead 
of  allowing  them  to  pass  forward  down  the 


river. 


The  life  of  an  irrigation  engineer  in  India  is 
often  a  very  lonely  one,  especially  on  some 
of  the  Punjab  systems,  where  vast  tracts  of 
land  have  been  reclaimed  quite  recently  from 
almost  absolute  desert.  There,  for  weeks, 
perhaps  months,  at  a  stretch 
he    may    never    see    another    ^"^  Irriga- 

T^  3    1x1  tion  Engi- 

liiuropean,   and   have   to   sub-  ,     ,T, 

^  neer  s  Life. 

sist  on  very  simple  fare.    The 

recompense  of  such  a  life  is  that  it  brings  him 
into  very  intimate  contact  with  the  agricul- 
turist and  his  daily  toil,  his  patient  persever- 
ance, his  generosity  to  friends  in  distress.  In 
short,  he  sees  a  great  deal  of  the  best  side  of 
the  Indian  "  ryot."  But  it  is  when  famine 
stalks  the  land  that  the  engineer  reaps  his  best 
reward.  One  engineer,  who  has  now  retired 
from  the  Indian  service,  spent  some  years  of 
his  Indian  life  on  the  construction  of  a  system 
lying  south  of  the  Ganges.  He  saw  it  com- 
menced ;  he  saw  it  finished.  Much  later,  he 
was  responsible  for  the  administration  of  that 
system  when  it  was  irrigating  some  500,000 
acres  of  crops  in  the  year.  At  that  time,  also, 
he  was  responsible  to  some  extent  for  the 
works  in  another  district  north  of  the  Ganges, 
where  there  were  no  canals.  It  was  his  duty 
to  visit  both.  A  time  of  scarcity  and  of  famine 
came.  The  rainfall  in  the  "  khareef  "  season 
— the  season  when  the  rice  is  grown — failed, 
and  there  was  difficulty  in 
even  raising  the  seedlings  of 
the  crop  which  are  transplanted  subsequently 
into  the  fields.  The  ground  was  too  hard  to 
plough.  Under  the  irrigation  from  the  canals 
south  of  the  Ganges,  the  crop  was  raised, 
transplanted,  and  watered.  But  this  not  with- 
out difficulty,  so  great  was  the  demand,  so 
hasty  the  people  sometimes.  North  of  the 
Ganges,  where  there  were  no  canals,  only  a 


A  Contrast. 


THE    GREAT    IRRIGATION    WORKS    OF    INDIA.  247 


Their  wages  are  so  low  (10  to  16  cents  a  clay)  that  mechanical  handling  plants  cannot  compete  here  with  manual  labour. 


portion  of  the  fields  could  be  planted  at  all, 
A  few  months  later  this  engineer  had  to  ride 
over  those  lands  north  of  the  river  to  try  to 
find  work  for  the  people.  For  more  than  100 
miles  he  passed  through  fields  which  should 
mostly  have  been  bearing  rice  crops — as  in  a 


sense  many  of  them  were.  In  thousands  of 
fields  there  was  a  plant  here  and  there — per- 
haps two  or  three  to  the  square  yard — bear- 
ing an  ear.  In  that  ear  there  might  be  four 
or  five  grains,  instead  of  forty.  A  great  many 
of  the  fields  were  given  over  to  the  cattle  as 


248 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


grazing  ground.  Straight  from  the  trip  this 
official  crossed  to  the  south  of  the  river.  He 
found  the  whole  area  which  had  been  irrigated 
bright  with  the  brilliant  shining  green  of  a 
flourishing  crop.     A  little  later  on,  when  the 

harvest  was  carried  to  the 
Plenty  and     »  kurrians  "  —  the      threshing 

floors — he  once  more  visited 
both  districts.  On  the  north  of  the  Ganges 
could  be  seen  only  little  baskets  of  grain  on  the 


receive  a  reward  which  few  others  can  enjoy 

so  thoroughly  as  he  ? 

It  may  be  asked,  why,  if  irrigation  works 

can  produce  these  results,  canals  are  not  so 

extended    as    to    prevent    famine    altogether. 

Because  unlimited  expenditure 

would  not    prevent    famines.    ^.  ^     i  ,^*  j' 
^  tion  of  Food. 

Irrigation  is  not  physicallypos- 

sible  in  all  parts  which  may  be  struck  by  fam- 
ine.    There  never  was  a  time  when,  taking 


VIEW   OF   THE    COUNTRY   SUBMERGED    BY    THE     WATER    IMPOUNDED    BY   THE    MARIKANAVE    DAM. 


threshing  floors  ;  on  the  south,  great  heaps  of 
golden  rice.  In  the  one  district  the  people  were 
crowding  on  to  the  relief  works  ;  in  the  other 
there  was  no  need  of  them.  That  year  the 
price  of  grain  was  high  ;  the  people  in  the  irri- 
gated tract  sold  their  surplus  at  famine  prices, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  the  extra  money  ihej 
realized  more  than  sufficed  to  pay  their  water 
rates  for  seven  years.  Since  that  time  a  canal 
has  been  designed,  and  is  now  nearing  com- 
pletion, to  irrigate  a  part  of  that  tract  north 
of  the  Ganges  which  suffered.  Who  shall  say 
that  the  engineer,  who  sees  a  canal  con- 
structed   and  then  sees  its  results,  does  not 


India  as  a  whole,  the  food  supply  of  the  con- 
tinent was  insufficient  to  feed  the  people.  The 
difficulty  has  always  been  to  deliver  the  food 
to  the  people,  and  to  do  it  without  demoral- 
izing them.  It  is  true  that  the  irrigation 
works  of  a  particular  district  liable  to  famine 
will  relieve  the  tract  which  is  actually  irri- 
gated, and  also  a  zone  lying  for  some  distance 
beyond  the  borders  of  that  tract.  But  where 
irrigation  cannot  be  practised  the  importation 
of  grain  is  the  only  means  of  relief.  An  acre 
of  food  grain  will  feed  from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  people  for  one  year  ;  on  this  basis  it 
has  been  calculated  that  the  existing  irriga- 


THE    GREAT    IRRIGATION    WORKS    OF    INDIA. 


249 


tion  works  are  capable  of  providing  food  for 
one-fifth  of  the  population  of  the  provinces  in 
which  they  lie. 

The  gross  value  of  the  crops  raised  on  the 
irrigated  area  in  India  is  about  £40,000,000 
annually.  It  must  not,  however,  be  as- 
sumed that  this  out-turn    is   entirely  due  to 


the  works.     The  irrigation  assures,  improves, 

and  increases  the  produce  of 

the  fields  ;    without  irrigation 

there    would,   in  most    tracts, 

be   a   crop.     It   is   in    famine 

years  only  that  water  prevents  the  entire  loss 

of  the  harvest. 


Value  of 

Irrigated 

Crops. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    MYAPORE    REGULATOR    AND    ESCAPE    AT    THE    HEAD    OF    THE    GANGES    CANAL. 


THK    STATUE    OF    LIBKKTY,    OM    J3EDL0E  S    ISLAND,    AT    THE    ENTRANCE    TO    NEW    YORK    HARBOUR. 


BUILDING  THE  STATUE  OF  LIBERTY. 


An  account  of  the  Erection  of  the  Colossal  Figure  on  Bedloe's  Island  in 

New  York  Harbour. 


STANDING  on  Bedloe's  Island,  a  small 
islet  in  New  York  Bay,  is  the  great 
Statue  of  Liberty,  the  largest  monu- 
ment of  its  kind,  the  creation  and  erection  of 
which  called  for  no  mean  engineering  skill. 
This  colossal  female  figure,  whose  torch  towers 
over  300  feet  into  the  air,  is  an  imposing  object 
as  seen  from  steamships  coming  up  the  har- 
bour, from  ferry-boat  and  bridge  and  river, 
and  from  the  encircling  cities  and  hills  and 
plains  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey. 

Although  the  object  of  this  article  is  mainly 

to  describe  how  this  giant  among  statues  was 

built   in    France,    transported 

..J'*      ^     over    2,000    miles    across    the 
the  Scheme. 

Atlantic,  and  erected  in  New 

York  Harbour,  some  reference  to  its  inception, 
and  the  reason  why  it  adorns  its  present  site, 


will  not  be  inappropriate.  It  is  the  work  of 
the  eminent  French  sculptor  M,  Auguste  Bar- 
tholdi,  who  obtained  his  idea  of  creating  such 
a  figure  and  presenting  it  to  the  American 
nation  from  his  friend  M.  Laboulaye. 

The  object  of  artist  and  friend  was  to  pro- 
duce something  that  would  be  a  fitting  gift, 
and  commemorative  of  the  long-established 
goodwill  between  the  two 
nations.  An  influential  com-  A  Splendid 
mittee  was  formed,  and  so  far 
back  as  1874  the  French  public 
were  asked  to  subscribe  to  a  fund  to  meet  the 
cost  of  building  the  statue.  Various  festivities 
were  held  throughout  the  country  with  a  view 
to  collecting  the  necessary  money,  and  in  that 
year  the  work  was  commenced.  Two  years 
later  a  portion  of  the  monument,  the  hand 


Gift  from 
France. 


BUILDING    THE    STATUE    OF    LIBERTY. 


251 


bearing  the  torch,  was  completed  in  Paris,  and 
sent  to  America,  where  it  was   exhibited  in 


the  following  table  of    the   principal   dimen- 
sions : — 


MAKING    PULL-SIZED    PLASTER    MODELS    OF    PARTS    OF    THE    STATUE. 


In  the  background  is  seen  the  complete  small-scale  study  model,  from  which  the  larger-scale  models  were  successively 
produced.     On  the  left,  three  workmen  arc  busy  modelling  one  of  Liberty's  fingers. 


Philadelphia,  and  subsequently  in  New  York. 
An  Act  of  Congress  accepting  the  statue  as  a 
gift  from  the  French  people,  and  setting  apart 
Bedloe's  Island  as  a  suitable  place  for  its 
reception,  was  passed  in  1877.  The  following 
year  another  portion  of  the  figure,  the  head, 
was  finished,  and  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Ex- 
position. 

The  statue  was  completed  in  1883,  and 
in  the  same  year  the  building 
of  the  great  pedestal  on 
which  it  stands  was  begun. 
Some  idea  of  the  colossal  dimensions  of 
both  figure  and  pedestal  may  be  gained  from 


Interesting 
Figures. 


Total  height  of  statue 

Foundation  of  pedestal  to  torch  . . 

Heel  to  top  of  head 

Length  of  hand 

Index  finger 

Circumference  at  second  joint 

Size  of  finger  nail.... 13  by  10  in. 

Head  from  chin  to  cranium 

Length  of  nose 

Right  arm  (length) 

Right  arm  (greatest  thickness) 

Thickness  of  waist 

Height  of  i^edestal 

Square  sides  at  base  (each).  . 
Square  sides  at  top  (each) 
Height  of  foundation ... 

Square  sides  at  bottom 

Square  sides  at  top 


Ft.  111. 

151  1 

;«)5  6 

111  r, 


17 

4 

42 


89 
G2 
40 


12    0 
3.5    0 


iM      0 

Itl    0 
f.6    7 


252 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


The  size  of  the  statue  is  far  greater  than 
any  other  in  the  world,  the  celebrated  Colossus 
of  Rhodes  having  been  but  some  105  feet  in 
height,  and  that  of  Nero,  by  Zenadore,  about 
118  feet.  The  designing  and  modelling  of  the 
figure  entailed  a  vast  amount  of  labour  ;    in- 


deed,  it  occupied  sixty  men  ten  years.     It  is      and  in  shape. 


ceeded  to  construct  models  or  moulds  upon 
which  the  copper  casing,  or  envelope,  could 
be  shaped.  This  outer  covering  of  copper,  it 
may  be  added,  is  only  about  ^^  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  and  necessitated  elaborate  precau- 
tions to  keep  the  outlines  and  corners  rigid 


THE    MODEL    OF   THE    LEFT    HAND    OF    THE    STATUE    AND    OF    PART    OF   THE    DRAPERY. 


How  the 
Model  was 
prepared. 


thought  that  Bartholdi  modelled  the  figure 
from  his  mother.  First  of  all,  he  prepared  a 
study  model,  seven  feet  high. 
This  was  enlarged  to  four  times 
its  original  size.  This,  in  turn, 
was  very  carefully  studied  and 
remodelled,  and  then  divided  into  a  great 
number  of  sections,  over  three  hundred  in  all, 
each  of  which  was  marked  with  a  distinguishing 
figure  or  number.  The  exact  form  of  the 
statue  having  been  settled,  the  sculptor  pro- 


All  of  the  sections  referred  to  above  were 

again  enlarged  four  times.     They  were  made 

with    the    greatest    geometrical    precision    by 

means  of  a  number  of  wires 

and    leads    attached    to    the        **"  .  *" 

Pieces. 

pieces,  from  which  dimensions 

were  taken  off  with  compasses,  some  of  the 
sections  requiring  as  many  as  9,000  separate 
measurements.  Plaster  moulds  of  these  sec- 
tions were  then  prepared,  and  as  these  were 
completed  carpenters  built  wooden  models  of 


BUILDING    THE    STATUE    OF    LIBERTY. 


253 


them.  Upon  these  the  copper  was  moulded 
by  blows  from  mallets  assisted  by  levers,  the 
^ne  finishing  touch  being  given  with  small 
hammers  or  rammers. 

This  copper  shell,  owing  to  its  thinness, 
^cked  rigidity,  and  it  was  necessary  to  in- 
crease the  stiffness  of  every  piece,  particularly 


separate  parts.     It    was    essential   that  these 
should  be  assembled  together  in  the  workshop 
to  see  that  they  fitted  exactly. 
A   huge   iron   frame,  designed   '^^^  Support- 
by  M.  Eiffel,  the  builder  of  the     *"^    ''^"'^* 
Eiffel    Tower,    was    made,    and    to    this    the 
numerous  sections   were  fitted.     It  consisted 


BEATING    PART   OF   THE    COPPER   SHELL    OF   THE    STATUE    INTO    SHAPE    ON    WOODEN    MOULDS. 


those  of  large   size,  by  means    of   iron   bars 

secured   to   the  interior  surface.     These  bars 

were  so   bent    as    to  conform 

Internal        closely    to    the   curves   in  the 
Stiffening'  ,  .  ,     ,  n 

Bars  copper,  to  which  they  were  fas- 

tened by  copper  bands  ;  their 
ends  were  riveted  to  the  shell,  and  were  so 
disposed  and  united  to  each  other  as  to  form 
a  most  intricate  network  of  bracing,  covering 
and  strengthening  the  entire  statue. 

The  statue  was  made  in  no  less  than  350 


of  four  massive  angle-iron  corner  posts,  united 
by  horizontal  angle  pieces,  dividing  it  into 
panels,  which  were  strengthened  by  steel  struts 
and  braces,  arranged  diagonally,  and  possess- 
ing side  extensions  to  approach  more  closely 
to  the  contour  of  the  figure.  The  smaller 
frames  supporting  the  head  and  the  extended 
arm  of  the  figure  were  of  lighter  construction 
than,  but  similar  to,  those  of  the  main  frame. 
The  shell,  or  monument,  is,  of  course,  bolted 
to  this  iron  framework.     By  assembling  the 


TRIAL    ERECTION    OF    THE    PARTS    AT    PARIS. 

On  the  leit  of  the  picture  are  tho  hand  and  torch  which  form  the  loftiest  points  of  the  Statue.     Observe  the  iron 

framework  for  supporting  the  right  arm. 


BUILDING    THE    STATUE    OF    LIBERTY. 


255 


pieces  together  the  engineers 
were  enabled  to  pierce  the 
necessary  holes  for  the  rivets 
at  the  edges  where  they  over- 
lapped. 

When  the  statue  was  taken 
down  in  France  the  pieces 
were  packed  in  frames  of 
wood,  to  prevent  damage  by 

bending,      and 
Foundations.     ,  ,  , 

brought     over 

to  New  York  in  a  French  war 
vessel.  While  the  sculptor  and 
his  assistant  had  been  busy  in 
Paris  the  Americans  had  com- 
menced operations  at  Bedloe's 
Island  by  preparing  a  suitable 
base,  and  erecting  a  handsome 
pedestal  to  carry  the  monu- 
ment. Naturally,  it  was  de- 
sired that  the  foundation 
should  be  a  particularly  solid 
one.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  solid 
piece  of  concrete,  one  of  the 
largest  monoliths  in  the  world, 
65  feet  high,  91  feet  square 
at  the  base,  and  66  feet  7  inches 
square  at  the  top.  It  rests 
upon  a  soil  composed  of  stiff 
clay,  gravel,  and  boulders. 
Upon  this  foundation  was 
built  the  pedestal,  a  particularly  handsome 
construction,  towering  89  feet  in  height. 

The  erection  of  the  monument  was  a  very 
tedious  and  slow  process.  It  meant  work  at 
great  heights,  and  in  so  confined  a  space  as  to 
prevent  the  employment  of  a 
large  number  of  men.  It  was 
most  essential  that  the  rivet- 
ing should  be  done  very  carefully  ;  otherwise 
there  would  be  unseemly  lines.  The  pieces 
were  temporarily  stored  in  a  great  shed  at  the 
foot  of  the  pedestal,  and  lifted  as  required  by 
a  derrick  on  to  a  huge  platform  built  round 
the  top  of  the  pedestal.     Here  the  protecting 


Erection  of 
the  Statue. 


THE  LEFT  FOOT  AND  PART  OF  THE  DRAPERY  OF  THE  STATUE. 


cover  of  wood  was  removed,  and  the  piece 
was  raised  by  rope  and  tackle  into  its  proper 
position,  and  held  in  place  until  enough  rivets 
or  small  temporary  bolts  had  been  inserted 
to  secure  it.  All  the  rivets  were  then  driven 
and  the  section  bolted  to  the  frame,  or  rather 
to  the  supporting  bars.  The  outer  heads  of 
the  rivets  were  of  copper  and  countersunk. 

In  this  manner  the  shell  was  carried  upward 
piece  by  piece,  until  the  monument  stood  com- 
plete. No  part  of  the  ironwork  is  in  direct 
contact  with  the  copper,  a  thorough  insulation 
being  obtained  by  shellacking  the  adjoining 
surfaces   and   interposing  a  strip  of  asbestos. 


256 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD 


The  Pedestal. 


This  was  necessary  to  prevent  the  corrosion 
which  would  otherwise  be  caused  by  the  action 
of  electricity  induced  by  the  damp  salt  air. 

This  gigantic  statue  is  justly  admired  for 
its  majestic  proportions  and  the  benevolent 
calm  of  the  countenance.  The  pedestal,  too, 
is  quite  an  artistic  creation. 
At  its  summit  is  a  balcony, 
3  feet  7  inches  wide  in  the  clear,  running  round 
its  four  sides.  It  has  also  a  loggia  26  feet 
7  inches  high.  Around  the  base  is  a  terrace, 
15  feet  6  inches  wide,  to  which  a  staircase 
leads.  Shields  bearing  the  coat  of  arms  of 
the  several  states  of  the  American  Republic 
are  arranged  round  the  base. 

The  statue  alone  weighs  100  tons,  its  com- 
position being  three-fifths  iron  and  two-fifths 
copper.  Its  cost  is  estimated  at  £50,000.  To 
this  sum  we  must  add  £70,000  for  the  base 
and  pedestal,  making  £120,000  in  all.  Both 
pedestal  and  monument  can  be  ascended,  and 
the  trip  from  the  Battery  to  the  island  for  a 
Yiew  of  New  York  from  the  pedestal  balcony  or 
from  the  torch  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  things 
that  should  be  done  by  every  visitor  to  New 


The 

Inauguration 

Ceremony. 


York.  The  torch,  at  the  extreme  height  of  the 
extended  arm,  is  reached  by  a  staircase  in  the 
monument.  Fifteen  people  can  easily  find 
accommodation  around  the  torch  balcony. 
Just  above  this  balcony  is  an  electric  light, 
which  illuminates  the  statue  every  night. 

October  28,  1886,  was  the  day  fixed  for  the 
unveiling  of  the  statue,  or,  to  speak  more 
correctly,  for  its  ceremonial  inauguration. 
A  grand  military  and  civil  pro- 
cession took  place  on  shore. 
Then  the  President  of  the 
Republic  and  the  most  dis- 
tinguished personages  boarded  thirty-seven 
steamers  for  the  island.  After  a  prayer  and 
some  music,  M.  de  Lesseps  delivered  an  ad- 
dress. This  was  followed  by  an  address  by 
Senator  Ewarts  announcing  the  presentation 
of  the  statue  by  France  to  the  United  States. 
The  face,  which  had  been  shrouded  by  tri- 
colour flags,  was  then  unveiled  amid  the  ter- 
rific din  of  cannon,  steam  whistles,  and  hooters. 
President  Cleveland  then  formally  accepted  the 
monument,  and  the  ceremony  closed  with  the 
singing  of  the  Old  Hundredth. 


A    BESSEMER    CONVERTER 


ORE    HANDLING    PLANT    MOVING    ORE    FROM    SHIP    TO    STOCK-PILE. 

Two  Hulett  conveyor  bridges  are  shown  in  this  picture.     The  nearor  one  has  its  front  cantilever  raised  ;  the  other  has 

just  dumpetl  a  load  from  its  .l-ton  bucket. 


REMARKABLE   MACHINERY   USED   IN 

THE  MANUFACTURE   OF 

IRON   AND  STEEL. 

BY    FRED.    G.    SMITH. 


THE    number    and    complexity    of    the 
mechanisms  to  be  found  in  a  modern 
steel  works  is  a  surprise  to  most  people 
who  visit  such  a  place  for  the  first  time.     The 
old-fashioned  methods  of  hand- 
ling material  have  been  super- 


Steel -Works' 
Machinery. 


seded  by  machinery.  The 
dominant  word  in  the  steel  works  of  to-day  is 
speed.  Managers  for  ever  cry  out,  "  Faster, 
faster,"  and  the  engineer  racks  his  brains  to 
respond.  A  glance  at  the  high-speed  and  almost 
automatic  machinery  to  be  seen  in  the  steel 
works  of  to-day  convinces  one  that  the  engineer 
has  replied  most  effectively.  Some  of  the  large 
works  turn  out  as  much  as  2,000,000  tons  a 

(1,408) 


year,  and  the  handling  of  so  vast  an  amount 
of  material  through  the  works  demands  some 
special  types  of  machines. 

In  the  United  States  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  transport  the  iron  ore  across  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  steel  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts of  Michigan  and  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  as  navigation 
or  the  Lakes  is  suspended  in 
the  winter  months,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
create  large  ore  reserves  during  the  open 
season.  This  stocking  of  material  near  the 
quay  must  be  carried  out  very  expeditiously, 
so  that  the  boats  may  be  delayed  as  little  as 
possible,  and  so  enabled  to  make  a  maximum 

17  VOL.    III. 


The  Hulett 
Ore  Unloader. 


258 


ENGINEERING    W0NDER8    OF    THE    WORLD. 


TWO    HULETT    AUTOMATIC    uKt     UNLOADKKo    Al     Vv  uKK. 


The  walking  beam  of  the  nearer  one  has  been  run  back  from  the  ship,  and  the  mast  Ixas  been  raised.     The  unloader 
in  the  background  is  seen  in  the  act  of  dipping  its  mast  into  the  ship's  hold. 


number  of  voyages  while  the  Lakes  are  open 
to  navigation.  A  consequence  of  quick  un- 
loading is  naturally  cheaper  freight  rates, 
owing  to  the  great  saving  of  labour  as  well  as 
of  time  effected  by  the  marvellous  unloading 
and  stacking  machines  employed.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  devices  used  for  the  rapid 
disembarkation  of  iron  ore  is  the  Hulett  un- 
loader. This  machine  consists  primarily  of 
two  parallel  girders  mounted  upon  a  structure 
wide  enough  to  span  four  lines  of  railway. 
The  girders  are  at  right  angles  to  the  quay. 
The  whole  structure  is  supported  by  wheels, 
and  can  be  moved  along  the  quay  into  the 
position  required  for  unloading  the  boat. 
Travelling  upon  the  parallel  girders  is  a 
trolley  carrying  a  long  rocking  beam  pivoted 
at  the  centre.  From  the  end  of  this  beam 
hangs  a  two-jawed  automatic  bucket,  which 
is  arranged  to  be  lowered  on  to  the  ore  with 


its  two  halves  apart  or  open.  As  soon  as  the 
closing  mechanism  is  put  into  operation,  the 
jaws  move  together,  biting  into  the  pile  of 
ore.  Not  a  small  bite,  however,  as  it  is  noth- 
ing extraordinary  for  one  of  these  buckets  to 
bring  up  ten  tons  of  ore.  The  action  of  the 
machine  when  unloading  a  boat  is  briefly  as 
follows  :  The  trolley  with  the  walking-beam 
travels  forward  along  the  girders  out  over 
the  boat,  until  the  mast  carrying  the  bucket 
at  its  lower  end  is  above  one  of  the  hatches. 
The  mast  then  descends  until  the  bucket 
rests  upon  the  iron  ore,  when  the  bucket  is 
closed  and  the  mast  raised.  The  trolley  then 
moves  back  ;  the  bucket  comes  over  a  large 
bin  built  into  the  superstructure,  opens  its 
jaws,  and  discharges  the  ore.  This  cycle  of 
operations  is  repeated  until  the  boat  has  been 
emptied. 

From  the  bin  the  ore  is  dumped  through 


REMARKABLE    MACHINERY. 


259 


^'^""^  ^^-"-"^^H 

::^ 

^^^^^H|^^BBHg^2^^^^H| 

'W 

H^^_^^^ 

^J 

^^K...^. 

vjmPMhH^^w^ 

^^^^ 

Special  Boats. 


LEG  AND  BUCKKT  OF  HULETT  UNLOAUEK  AT  WORK 
IN  THE  HOLD  OF  A  MODERN  ORE-CARRYING 
VESSEL. 

traps  in  the  bottom  into  main-line  cars  on  the 
tracks  underneath,  and  hauled  away  by  the 
yard  locomotive.  In  cases  where  the  ore  has 
to  be  stacked  in  a  pile  immediately  to  the 
rear  of  the  quay,  it  is  discharged  into  a  second 
conveyor  built  on  to  the  unloader,  run  out 
over  the  stock  pile,  and  dumped. 

Apart  from  their  huge  capacity,  these 
machines  are  remarkable  for  the  method  of 
their  control.  The  operator  is  carried  in  the 
steel  mast  just  above  the 
bucket,  and  descends  with  it 
into  the  boat.  He  is  there- 
fore always  in  full  view  of 
his  load  ;  and  when  the 
cargo  is  nearly  exhausted,  he 
can  place  his  bucket  in  the 
most  advantageous  position. 
As  the  buckets  are  designed 
to  hold  ten  tons  of  ore,  and 
make  more  than  one  bite  per 
minute,  one  of  these  machines 
will  handle  over  600  tons  per 
hour.  Four  machines  work- 
ing together  have  unloaded  a 
cargo  of  iron  ore  of  7,200 
tons  in  four  and  a  half  hours 
— a  record  that  should  satisfy 
the  most  exacting  shipowner. 
These     unloaders    are    fitted 


with  a  separate  powerful  motor  for  each 
motion.  That  for  opening  and  closing  the 
bucket  develops  80  horse-power  ;  that  for 
operating  the  rocker,  150  horse-power;  while 
that  for  moving  the  whole  machine — a  weight 
of  900  tons — along  the  quay  is  260  horse- 
power. 

We  may  note  that  in  connection  with  these 
unloaders  a  special  type  of  boat  has  been 
evolved.  The  boilers  and  engines  are  placed 
right  at  the  stern  of  the  ves.sel 
and  the  navigating  bridge  and 
crew  space  right  forward,  leaving  the  whole  of 
the  body  free  for  ore.  This  space  is  ample 
to  allow  four  unloaders  to  work  in  it  simul- 
taneously. The  hatch-covers  are  made  to  slide, 
so  that  all  areas  of  the  bunker  space  can  be 
uncovered  in  turn.  Moreover,  the  shape  of 
the  boat  is  such  as  to  enable  the  unloader  to 
reach  all  parts  of  the  hold.  In  the  later 
boats,  96  per  cent,  of  the  cargo  has  been  un- 
loaded without  the  aid  of  shovellers,  which 
is  probably  a  record  in  the  mechanical  hand- 
ling of  material  in  bulk. 

Another  interesting  type  of  machine  used 


A    CAR    DUMPER    EMPTYING    A    RAILWAY    ORE    CAR    (A)    INTO    A    BOTTOM 

DUMPING    CAR    (b). 
One  wheel  of  A  is  seen,  pointing  upwards. 


260 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


for  unloading,  and  also  for  stocking  and  re- 
handling,  consists  of  a  large  bridge  having  a 
cantilever  extension  at  one  end  for  reaching 
over   two  or  more  railway  lines  or  out  over 

a  quay.     The  other 
Another  Type    ^^^      -^     supported    ' 
of  Unloader.  .    . 

upon     an    A-irame 

standard.     A    trolley,    carrying   an 
automatic   bucket,    runs    upon   the 

A    MODERN    BLAST    FURNACE    OUTFIT. 

In  the  foreground  are  the  gas  cleaners ; 
beyond  them  is  the  blast  furnace  (ribbed); 
to  the  right  are  the  stoves  for  heating  the 
air  blast;  to  the  left  the  inclined  rails  up 
which  oars  of  ore,  coke,  limestone,  etc.,  ] 
travel  to  the  top  of  the  furnace. 


lower  inside  flanges  of  the  bridge,  and  is  rope 
operated — that  is,  the  motions  are  transmitted 
by  ropes  to  the  trolley  from  hoisting  and  travel- 
ling mechanism  contained  in  the  front  tower. 


REMARKABLE    MACHINERY. 


261 


Blast 
Furnaces. 


The  operator  travels  with  the  trolley,  the 
motions  of  which  he  governs  by  means  of  mag- 
netic controllers,  and  always  has  a  clear  view 
of  what  is  being  done.  The  automatic  buckets 
for  this  class  of  machines  hold  up  to  seven 
tons  of  ore,  which  can  be  dumped  upon  the  top 
of  the  stock  pile  or  into  the  railway  trucks 
as  required.  These  bridges  are  designed  for 
quick  operation,  and  are  able  to  shift  1,500 
tons  each  in  ten  hours — an  achievement 
which  necessitates  the  trolley  travelling  at  a 
speed  of  800  feet  per  minute  along  the  girders. 
Their  use  is  not  confined  to  ore  handling,  for 
when  fitted  with  lighter  buckets  they  are 
employed  to  shift  coal  and  limestone. 

From  the  transportation  and  loading  we 
pass  to  the  next  process  in  steel-making — 
namely,  the  introduction  of  the  ore  into  the 
blast  furnace  which  extracts 
from  the  ore  the  iron  from 
which  the  steel  is  manufac- 
tured. A  blast  furnace  consists  of  a  huge 
column  of  brickwork  inside  a  metal  casing, 
shaped  like  a  chimney,  from  75  to  100  feet 
high,  and  about  20  feet  in  diameter  at  the 
largest  part.  At  the  top  it  is  contracted  and 
fitted  with  a  bell  to  keep  the  gases  from 
escaping.  From  the  widest  part,  about  18 
feet  from  the  ground,  the  furnace  tapers 
downward  sharply  to  about  8  feet  in  diameter 
at  the  bottom.  This  lower  tapered  part  is 
called  the  bosh.  At  several  points  round  the 
bosh  the  air  of  the  blast  enters  through  Avater- 
cooled  pipes  called  tuyeres.  The  contents  of 
a  blast  furnace  are,  to  put  it  briefly,  a  column 
of  alternate  layers  of  coke,  ore,  and  limestone, 
varying  in  temperature  from  a  white  heat  at 
the  tuyeres  to  a  black  heat  at  the  bell.  The 
chemical  reactions  that  take  place  provide  the 
heat  necessary  to  separate  the  metal  from 
the  refuse.  For  the  full  details  of  the  process 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  a  good  book  on 
metallurgy.*     The    interesting    feature    of    a 

*  A  simple  explanation  of  the  mechanical  and  chemical 
processes  of  iron  and  steel  manufacture  is  given  on  })j).  207- 
262  of  Hmo  It  la  Made. 


<S) 


O  Gases 


Steel,  lined 
Brick 


Iron 


SECTION    OF    BLAST    FURNACE. 

The  air  blast  passes  from  the  pipe  P  P  into  the  furnace 
through  the  tuyeres  T  T.  Slag  is  draw-n  off  at  S,  and  tlie 
liquid  iron  at  I,     Ore,  etc.,  is  fed  in  past  the  conical  trap  C. 

blast  furnace  from  a  mechanical  point  of  view 
is  the  method  adopted  in  the  United  States 
and  on  the  Continent  for  charging,  A  blast 
furnace  producing  400  tons  of  iron  per  day 
of  twenty-four  hours  requires  three  times 
that  amount  of  material  (1,200  tons)  to  be 
poured  into  it  during  that  period.  The 
charging  installation  consists  of  an  inclined 
lattice  girder  reaching  from  the  ground-level 
to  the  top  of  the  blast  furnace.  The  girder  is 
fitted  with  two  sets  of  rails,  parallel  to  one 
ailother  for  the  whole  of  their  length  up  to 


262 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


from   the    subject    of    this 
article,  we  will  leave  it  out 
of     consid- 
eration. Liftins: 
.             Magnets. 
ihe  iron 

when  smelted  is  run  out 
into  open  sand  -  moulds 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
comb  directly  in  front  of 
the  blast  furnace.  (The 
castings  are  subsequently- 
broken  up  into  pieces 
called  pigs,  whence  the 
term    "  pig  "  -  iron.)      For 


MAGNET    LIFTING    A    SOW    AND   PIGS  OF 
IRON    FROM    THE    MOULDS. 

the  head  of  the  furnace,  on  which 

runs  a  tub  containing  the  charge 

of  iron  ore  to  be  emptied  in  at  the 

top    of    the    blast- 
Automatic      t       ^  4. 

lurnace       tower. 

This  tub  has  four 
wheels,  two  on  each  set  of  rails. 
At  the  top  the  lower  set  of  rails, 
upon  which  the  front  wheels  of  the 
tub  run,  curve  over  the  furnace. 
The  upper  set  of  rails,  carrying 
the  bottom  wheels  of  the  tub, 
continue  upwards,  and  by  up- 
setting the  tub  cause  its  charge 
of  iron  ore  to  be  tipped  auto- 
matically into  the  furnace.  The 
tub  is  hauled  up  by  a  wire-rope 
carried  over  a  pulley  at  the  top,  and  operated 
by  a  hoisting  engine  or  motor  situated  in 
a  building  at  ground-level.  The  engine  is 
arranged  to  give  a  "  harmonic  lift,"  and  so 
brings  the  car  to  rest  gradually  as  it  reaches 
the  top,  and  reverses  the  motion  of  the  tub 
independently  of  the  operator. 

Other  machinery  used  in  connection  with 
the  blast  furnaces  would  not  be  of  interest  to 
any  but  the  enthusiastic  engineer,  and  as  a 
description  would  cause  a  serious  divergence 


MAGNET    LIFTING    PLATE    WITH    THHF.K    MEN    IN    THE    YARD    OF 
THE    WELLMAN    SEAVER    MORGAN    COMPANY. 


lifting  the  unbroken  combs  out  of  the  sand, 
electro-magnets  of  the  ironclad  type,  and 
specially  designed  for  this  work,  are  now  suc- 
cessfully employed.  The  whole  of  the  electric 
wiring  is  enclosed  within  metal,  and  the  shape 
is  such  that  as  many  as  possible  of  the  mag- 
netic lines  of  force  are  concentrated  on  the 
pig-iron.  This  type  of  magnet  is  also  useful 
for  lifting  pieces  of  scrap  steel  which  are  too 
large  to  be  shovelled  up,  and  for  handling 
plates   and   hot   billets   of   steel.     A   literally 


REMARKABLE    MACHINERY. 


263 


AN         IRONCLAD  '      MAGNET    LIFTING    A    G-TON 
SKULL-CRACKER    BALL. 


A    SKULL-CRACKER     BALL    SMASHING    SCRAP    AT 

THE    BALDWIN    LOCOMOTIVE    WORKS. 

(Photo,  Electric  Controller  ai.d  Supply  Company,  Ohio.) 

striking  application  of  the  magnet  is  seen  in 
the  hfting  of  the  large  balls,  sometimes  called 
skull-crackers,  which  break  up  large  pieces  of 
scrap  for  remelting.  A  magnet  forms  an  ideal 
means  of  raising  these  balls,  for  in  nine  cases 
out  of  ten  a  skull-cracker  fitted  with  a  ring 
for  ordinary  hook-tackle  will  fall  with  the 
ring  downwards,  and  a  lot  of  work  and  time 
must  be  expended  in  getting  at  the  ring  to 
replace  the  hook.  Also,  w  hen  a  magnet  is  used, 
the  ball  is  released  merely  by  switching  off 
the  electric  current. 

We  have  now  outlined  roughly  the  progress 
of  iron  from  the  ore  to  the  pig  stage.  The 
next  thing  to  consider  is  the  transformation 
of  pig-iron  into  steel.  There  are  two  prin- 
cipal methods  of  converting  pig-iron  into 
steel — the  Bessemer  process,  and  the  open 
hearth  process.  Tlie  Bessemer  process  is  the 
oldest,  and  was  patented  by  Sir  Henry  Bes- 
semer in  1855 — from  which  year  the  com- 
mercial manufacture  of  steel  dates. 

The  process  consists  in  blowing  air  through 


264 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


molten  pig-iron  in  a  suitable  vessel,  called  a 
converter,  and  burning  out  the  silicon,  man- 
ganese, and  carbon.  The  converter  of  present- 
day  type  is  a  large  pear-shaped  vessel  built 
up  of  heavy  steel  plates  riveted  together  and 
mounted  upon 
trunnions  so  as 
to  be  free  to 
rotate  or  tip. 
It  is  lined  in- 
side with  re- 
fractory brick 
work,  which  is 
as  much  as  two 
feet  thick  at 
the  bottom,  to 
withstand  the 
heat.  The  only 
opening  is  at 
the  top  of 
the  truncated 
cone  -  shaped 
spout,  and  the 
metal  is  teemed 
in  and  out  by 
rotating  the 
vessel  on  its 
trunnions.  The 
air-blast,  sup- 
plied by  large 
blowing  en- 
gines at  a  pres- 
sure of  about 
15  lbs.  per 
square  inch, 
enters  through  one  of  the  trunnions,  which  is 
made    hollow    for    the    purpose.      From    this 

trunnion  it  passes  down  the 
The  Bessemer   ^-^^     ^^    ^^^    converter,     and 

Process  of 
Steel-making.    ®^^f  ^  through  openmgs,  called 

tuyeres,  in  the  bottom,  from 
which  the  liquid  metal  is  excluded  by  the 
air  pressure.  The  mouth  of  the  converter  is 
tipped  downwards  to  allow  the  introduction 
of  the  molten  iron  brought  from   the  metal- 


A    BESSEMER    CO  X  V  EUTEK    IX     J3LAST 


mixers.  These  large  mixers  or  storage  fur- 
naces are  used  as  reservoirs,  into  which  the 
metal  from  the  blast  furnaces  is  teemed  by 
means  of  ladles.  Their  use  precludes  the 
necessity  for   casting  the   iron  into  pigs   and 

remelting  it 
for  the  con- 
verter —  which 
means  a  great 
economy  in 
fuel  and  lab- 
our. After  the 
metal  has  been 
poured  into  the 
converter,  the 
blast  is  started 
and  the  con- 
verter brought 
gradually  into 
an  upright 
position.  The 
condition  of 
the  charge  is 
judged  by  the 
colour  of  the 
burning  gases 
escaping,  and 
great  judg- 
ment is  re- 
quired to  de- 
cide when  the 
0  on  version, 
which  lasts 
only  about  fif- 
teen minutes, 
is  complete.  There  are  now  several  modifica- 
tions of  the  original  process,  one  being  the 
Tropenas,  in  which  the  air  is  blown  in  at  the 
surface  of  the  metal.  The  capacity  of  con- 
verters ranges  from  3  to  20  tons  ;  from  8  to 
16  tons  is  the  most  common  practice.  Tipping 
is  effected  and  controlled  by  means  of  either 
hydraulic  cylinders  or  electro-motors  arranged 
to  rotate  the  converter  through  gearing  driv- 
ing on  to  one  of  the  trunnions. 


REMARKABLE    MACHINERY. 


2i)5 


The 

Open  Hearth 

Process. 


be5;i:mi:i;  s  steel  converter. 
A,  vertical  section  through  trunnions ;   B,  plan  of  bottom ; 
C,  section  of  tuyere;   D,  plan  of  do.,  showing  air-holes. 

The  second  important  steel-making  process 
is  the  open  hearth,  introduced  several  years 
after  the  Bessemer.  Its  name  signifies 
that  the  steel  is  pro- 
duced in  a  furnace, 
the  metal  bath  of 
which  is  exposed  to 
heated  gases.  To  produce  the  high  tem- 
perature— 3,000°Fahrenheit — required, 
the  furnaces  are  made  regenerative — 
that  is,  the  burnt  gas  is  led,  on  its 
way  to  the  chimney,  through  brick- 
work stoves  which  heat  the  fresh  air 
and  gas  entering  the  furnace.  There 
are  two  stoves — one  for  air,  and  one 
for  gas — at  each  end  of  the  furnace,  and  the 
two  sets  are  brought  into  use  alternately  by 
the  operation  of  valves.  Within  certain  limits 
each  reversal  produces  an  increase  in  the 
temperature  of  the  gases  burning  in  the 
hearth.  The  usual  temperature  of  the  stoves 
at  the  finish  is  about  1,800°  Fahrenheit. 

The  ordinary  type  of  open  hearth  furnace 
is  stationary,  built  up  of  brick,  strengthened, 
where  necessary,  with  metal- work.     To  draw 


off  the  molten  metal,  a  hole  is  knocked  in  the 
bottom  at  one  side,  and  the  charge  is  run  off 
through  a  spout  into  a  large  ladle.  The  hole 
is  then  plugged  with  refractory  material  pre- 
paratory to  introducing  a  fresh  charge.  This 
type  has  little  interest  for  the  engineer. 

For  special  purposes,  however,  the  furnace 
is  made  to  roll  or  tilt,  so  that  the  metal  may 
be  poured  out  as  required.  These  tilting 
furnaces,  which  are  constructed  to  hold  up 
to  250  tons  of  molten  steel — and,  in  a  modi- 
fied form  as  metal-mixers,  up  to  750  tons — 
are  fine  examples  of  the  mechanical  engineer's 
skill  in  overcoming  difficulties  caused  by 
great  weight  and  heat. 

Such  a  furnace  consists  of  a  large  rec- 
tangular steel  casing  reinforced  with  heavy 
steel  girders  and  lined  with 
refractory  brickwork.  It  is 
mounted  upon  rockers  or 
rollers,  whichever  may  be  more  suitable,  and 
at  each  end  has  openings  by  which  the  gases 


Tilting 
Furnaces. 


A,  A' 
1  and  3 


DIAGRAMMATIC    SECTION    OF    AN    OPEN    HEARTH 
REGENERATIVE    FURNACE. 

,  stores  for  air ;  G,  G',  stoves  for  gas.     Air  enters  by  passages 
alternately ;  gas  through  passages  2  and  4  alternately. 

pass  in  and  out,  and  movable  burners  which 
can  be  drawn  back  to  allow  the  furnace  body 
to  roll  easily.  Doors  are  fitted  at  one  side  for 
introducing  metal — either  molten  or  in  the 
"  pig  "  state — steel  scrap,  and  limestone  ;  at 
the  other  is  a  spout  through  which  the  finished 
steel  can  be  poured,  in  any  quantity  desired, 
by  tilting  the  furnace  body.  Tilting  is  usually 
effected  by  hydraulic  cylinders  ;  in  some  cajses 
electrical  power  is  used.     The  doors  and  port- 


REMARKABLE    MACHrNEHY. 


267 


ends  of  the  largest  furnaces 
are  operated  hydraulically. 
Coming  to  actual  figures,  we 
may  mention  that  the  rolling 
portion  of  a  250-ton  capacity 
furnace  weighs,  with  its 
charge,  about  1,000  tons. 

One  of  the  greatest  im- 
provements in  steel-works' 
practice  was  the  introduc- 
tion, by  S.  T.  Wellman,  of 

mac  hinerv 
Mechanical     f^^.    charging 

Furnace        , , 

^.  t  h  e     o  p  e  n 

Chargers.  ^ 

hearth  fur- 
nace, and  thereby  greatly 
reducing  the  wages  bill 
while  increasing  the  output 
from  the  furnaces.  Under  the  old  system 
pigs  of  iron  were  fed  in  one  at  a  time  by 
an  implement  something  like  the  "  peel " 
with  which  a  baker  places  loaves  in  his  oven 
and  withdraws  them.  A  modern  charging- 
machine  vill  feed  in  four  tons  of  iron — about 
100  "pigs" — at  once,  at  the  rate  of  a  load 
in  forty  seconds.  One  man  suffices  to  work 
the  machine,  and  one  is  needed  to  open  and 
close  the  furnace  door. 

These  mechanical  chargers  are  constructed 
to  move  either  upon  rails  on  the  charging 
platform,  or  upon  overhead  runways.  We 
select  for  detailed  description  a  machine  of 
the  second  type,  as  being  the  more  interesting 
mechanically. 

At  the  top  is  a  wheeled  girder  carriage 
resting  on  the  runway.  Across  the  carriage, 
towards  and  away  from  the  furnaces,  travels 
a  trolley,  from  which  depends  a  structure  con- 
taining a  vertical  sliding  mast.  To  the  bottom 
of  the  mast  is  pivoted  a  charging-bar,  carrying 
at  the  end  either  a  box  for  pigs  or  a  peel  for 
large  masses  of  iron  weighing  up  to  eight  tons. 
The  bar  can  be  moved  vertically  and  horizon- 
tally, and  be  rotated  about  its  own  axis,  in- 
dependently  of    the    motions   of    the    trolley 


TAPPING    AN    OPEN    HEARTH    FURNACE. 


and  main  carriage.  The  operators  become  so 
skilful  as  to  move  the  bar  in  three  senses  at 
the  same  time.  To  charge  the  furnace,  the 
box  or  peel  on  the  bar  is  loaded  ;  the  furnace 
door  is  opened  ;  the  bar  passes  in  and  re- 
volves, depositing  its  load  on  the  hearth. 

These  machines  are  worked  by  very  power- 
ful electric  motors  and  controlled  by  strong 
brakes,  and  so  are  able  to  start  and  stop  very 
quickly. 

The   molten    steel,    by     whatever    process 

made,   is    always   teemed,   before   being  cast, 

into  ladles  which  are  in  many  cases  handled 

by    electric    overhead    cranes. 

c  11^1     Ladle  Cranes. 

bome  cranes  are  able  to  work 

ladles  containing  60  tons  of  molten  metal. 
Their  chief  feature  is  a  main  trolley  running 
on  two  parallel  girders  and  provided  with  two 
sets  of  motor-operated  lifting  gear,  the  chains 
or  ropes  of  wliicli  hang  down  outside  the 
girders.  The  ropes  or  chains  support  a  heav}"^ 
cross-beam  and  hooks  for  holding  a  ladle. 
An  auxiliary  trolley,  moving  on  rails  between 
the  girders,  and  running  from  end  to  end,  is 
used  to  tip  the  ladle  and  to  lift  light  loads. 
For  rope  suspension  as  many  as  sixteen 
falls    of    rope    in    four    separate    cables    are 


268 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


TWO    15-TON    ROLLING    OPEN    HKARTH    FURNACES    AT    HAMILTON,    U.S.A. 

The  nearer  furnace  is  in  the  tilted  position  which  delivers  the  charge  to  the  ladle  seen  commanding  two  rows  of 

ingot  moulds. 


employed,  so  that  the  breaking  of  one  rope 
may  not  mean  the  fall  of  the  load  and 
the  disastrous  consequences  attending  the 
fracture  or  sudden  emptying  of  a  ladle  con- 
taining sixty  tons  of  molten  steel.  All  the 
machinery  is  protected  from  the  terrific  heat 
by  baffle-plates,  and  the  operator's  cage  is 
screened  by  similar  plates  and  very  thick 
glass. 

Steel  intended  for  rolling  into  plates,  joists, 

and  angle  bars  is  cast  in  iron  moulds  to  form 

ingots.     The  heat  so  warps  the  moulds  and 

roughens    their    interiors    that 

'."^^^^.^^i":^^*-  the  removal  of  an  ingot  be- 
ing  Machines.  ,  ... 

comes    a    task    requiring    the 

services  of  special  hydraulic  or  electric  ma- 
chines able  to  exert  a  pressure  of  over  200  tons 
on  the  head  of  the  ingot.  Probably  the  most 
interesting  appliance  to  be  found  in  a  casting- 


shop  is  a  machine  which  removes  the  ingots 
from  the  moulds,  and  also  places  them  in 
vertical  soaking-pits  or  underground  fur- 
naces, by  which  they  are  kept  red-hot  until 
needed  for  the  rolling-mill.  These  machines 
consist  of  a  pair  of  girders  mounted  upon  end 
trucks  like  an  ordinary  overhead  crane.  Here 
the  similarity  ends,  the  trolley  having  a  braced 
steel  guide-frame  depending  from  it,  in  which 
slides  a  steel  mast  having  at  its  lower  ex- 
tremity a  pair  of  dogs  or  grippers.  Five  dis- 
tinct motions  are  given  to  the  dogs,  which 
can  handle  the  ingot  or  mould  almost  like  a 
pair  of  hands.  It  is  perhaps  needless  to  add 
that  machines  of  this  type  are  operated  elec- 
trically. The  operator  rides  in  a  cab  built 
out  from  the  hanging  framework,  and  so  is 
able  to  watch  his  load  and  see  right  down 
into  the  soaking-pits.     The  travelling  speed  is 


REMARKABLE    MACHINERY. 


269 


often  as  high  as  600  feet  per  minute,  and  all 
the  other  motions  are  correspondingly  fast. 
Thanks  to  its  multitudinous  movements  and 
great  range  of  action,  a  single  machine  does 
the  work  of  a  great  many  men.  One  man 
driving  the  machine  can,  without  any  assist- 
ance from  the  ground,  catch  hold  of  the  cast- 
iron  ingot  mould,  push  out  the  ingot,  and  sot 
down  the  mould  ready  for  the  next  cast.  He 
then  picks  up  the  ingot  and  carries  it  off  to 
the  soaking-pits.  The  machine  removes  one 
of  the  lids  without  setting  down  the  ingot,  puts 
the  ingot  into  the  pit,  and  replaces  the  lid.  It 
then  returns  for  another  ingot,  and  repeats 
the  cycle  of  operations.  When  not  in  use  for 
stripping  and  charging,  the  machine  draws 
ingots  from  the  soaking-pits  and  carries  them 


to  the  rolls.  One  should  remember,  in  order 
to  appreciate  steel-works'  machinery  at  its  full 
value,  the  high  temperature  of  the  material 
handled,  the  omnipresent  dust  and  dirt,  and 
the  fact  that  the  machines  have  to  run  night 
and  day  continuously  for  six  days  a  week. 
All  cleaning  and  adjustment  must  be  done  in 
the  course  of  a  few  hours  at  the  week-end. 

The  conversion  of  an  ingot  into  plates  or 
sections  in  a  rolling-mill  is  an  interesting 
operation,  and  one  that  requires  very  sub- 
stantially built  machinery. 
For  rolling  rails,  angles,  etc., 
a  "  three-high "  mill  with  three  rolls  always 
running  in  one  direction  is  used,  the  sections 
travelling  between  the  middle  and  bottom 
rolls  in  one  direction,  and  returning  between 


Rolling:  Mills. 


AN    ELECTRICALLY    DRIVEN    CHARGER    FOR    OPEN    HEARTH    FURNACES. 

The  charge  (oi  pig-iron)  is  carried  at  the  end  of  the  arm,  which  is  nm  into  the  furnace  and  revolved  to  empty  the  charge. 
By  means  of  this  machine  4  tons  of  pig-iron  can  be  fed  into  the  furnace  in  ono  oj>t>ration. 


270  ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD, 


the  middle  and  top  rolls.  For  rolling  plates 
is  employed  a  "  two-high  "  reversing  rolling- 
mill — that  is,  the  mill  has  two  rolls,  one  fixed 
roll  at  the  bottom  and  one  adjustable  roll  at 
the  top,  as  in  the  ordinary  domestic  mangle. 
These    reversing     mills     are     usually     steam- 


the  longest  plates  rolled  by  the  mill.  The 
controllers  for  operating  the  tables  are  placed 
upon  an  elevated  platform  in  front  of  the 
mill,  so  that  the  operator  can  see  all  that  is 
going  on,  and  cause  the  plate  to  travel  back- 
wards and  forwards  to  the  rolls  as  required. 


AN    "  ALLIGATOR  "    GRIP    SLAB    CHARGER    INSERTING    A    12-TON    PLATE    INTO    A    REHEATING    FURNACE. 


driven,  although  electric  driving  is  now  suc- 
cessfully employed.  The  rolls  are  made  of 
specially  hardened  steel,  and  for  a  mill  rolling 
ship  or  boiler  plates  up  to  7  feet  wide  and  40 
feet  long,  are  about  16  inches  in  diameter. 
They  are  mounted  in  massive  cast-iron  guide- 
frames  or  housings  with  a  screw-down  gearing 
for  adjusting  the  rollers,  which  in  large  mills 
is  operated  by  electric  motors.  At  both  back 
and  front  of  the  mill  is  a  table  of  rollers, 
driven  generally  by  an  electric  motor,  and 
extending  over  a  distance  sufficient  to  take 


The  rolls  themselves  are  driven  by  a  powerful 
steam-engine  through  a  double  helical  spur- 
gear  reduction,  the  type  of  gearing  rendered 
necessary  by  the  large  power  required  and  the 
heavy  shocks  to  be  borne  at  the  commence- 
ment of  each  pass.  Thirty  to  forty  ingots  an 
hour  are  dealt  with  quite  easily. 

For  drawing  the  slabs  out  of  the  reheating 
furnace  and  bringing  the  billets  or  slabs  to 
the  plate-mill  a  machine  called  a  slab  charger 
is  used.  It  consists  of  a  pair  of  girders 
mounted  on  carriages  running  upon  overhead 


KEMAHKAi^LE    MACHiN  Ell  V 


'27  \ 


Slab  Chars:ers. 


ways,  and  bearing  a  trolley  fitted  with  a 
hanging  portion  built  up  of  steel  plates  and 
angles.  Within  this  hanging 
portion  slides  a  steel  frame- 
work, to  the  rear  portion  of  which  is  attached  the 
operator's  cab,  and  in  front  is  a  massive  cast- 
steel  bar  fitted  with  a  suitable  grip  for  holding 
the  slab.  The  framework  is  raised  or  lowered 
by  suitable  gearing  upon  the  trolley.  It  is 
also  made  to  turn  about  a  vertical  axis,  and 
travel  both  down  and  across  the  shop.  The 
operator  is  thus  enabled  to  pick  up  or  set  down 
a  slab  over  a  large  range  without  any  outside 
help  whatever.  The  method  of  holding  the 
slab  varies  with  the  conditions  of  working. 
Sometimes  the  machine  is  arranged  to  grip 
the  ingot  by  the  sides,  and  sometimes  by  the 
ends.  Then  there  is  what  is  termed  an 
"  alligator  "  grip,  which  seizes  the  slab  as  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  finger.  A  special  feature 
about  the  grips  is  that  they  are  so  designed 
that  the  pressure  required  for  holding  is  de- 
rived from  the  weight  of  the  ingot  itself,  and 
any  slackness  through  shrinkage  of  the  ingot 
})y  cooling  is  automatically  taken  up.  Ma- 
chines of  this  type  handle  quite  easily  slabs 
up  to  twelve  tons  in  weight. 

It  now  only  remains  to  cut  up  the  finished 
product  into  the  length  required,  and  to  load 
it  into  wagons  for  transport.  For  cutting  up 
the  plates,  etc.,  a  machine  called  a  shears  is 
used,   furnished  with  two  blades  working  on 


Shears. 


the  same  principle  as  those  of  a  pair  of 
scissors.  These  machines  are  of  enormous 
power,  and  will  shear  a  cold 
plate  10  feet  wide  and  1  i  inches 
thick  at  one  stroke.  They  are  operated  by 
hydraulic  power  and  fitted  with  steam  inten- 
sifiers.  Some  of  the  large  shears  designed  for 
shearing  armour  plates  exert  a  pressure  of 
5,000  tons.  In  appearance  they  suggest  a 
very  massive  hydraulic  press  having  a  fixed 
blade  at  the  bottom  and  a  moving  blade 
attached  to  the  hydraulic  rams.  The  shears 
are,  of  course,  fixed,  and  the  material  has  to 
be   brought  to  them,   generally  by  overhead 


cranes. 


For  stocking  the  material  in  the  yards  and 
loading  it  into  wagons  there  are  special  cranes, 
either  of  the  Goliath  or  gantry  type,  covering 
a  range  of  sometimes  150  feet.  They  are 
fitted  with  magnets  for  handling  the  material, 
are .  electrically  driven  at  high  speeds,  and 
effect  a  great  economy  over  the  old  jib  cranes. 

The  machinery  described  in  this  article  does 
not  by  any  means  comprise  the  whole  of  that 
used  in  a  steel  works.  In  fact,  not  one-quarter 
has  been  mentioned — only  those  parts  of  the 
plant  that  are  most  interesting.  If  the  reader 
wishes  to  go  further  into  the  subject,  he  should 
obtain  permission  to  visit  a  large  steel  works, 
and  see  for  himself  to  what  a  pitch  of  perfec- 
tion the  rapid  handling  of  hot  and  heavy 
material  has  been  brought. 


[Note. — Thanks  are  due  to  Messrs.    Welbnan,  Seaver,  and  Head,  Ltd.,  for 
supplying  many  of  the  photographs  illustrating  this  article.^ 


■^<^,,^,Jff«o.►  ^^■-tt&lKff'Si^i 


THE    JETTY    AT    THE    HEAD    OF    LOCII    LEVEN,    AND    ELECTRIC    RAILWAY     TO    THE    ALUMINIUM    WORKS. 

THE  KINLOCHLEVEN  WORKS  OF  THE 
BRITISH  ALUMINIUM  COMPANY. 


An  account  of  the  greatest  Water- Power  Installation  in  the 
United  Kingdom. 


Aluminium. 


THOUGH  aluminium  is  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  metals,  being  a  con- 
stituent of  all  clays,  it  was,  until 
about  twenty  years  ago,  very  expensive,  owing 
to  the  great  difficulty  experi- 
enced in  separating  it  from  the 
other  substances  with  which  it  is  combined. 
Wohler  first  isolated  it  in  1827  by  a  chemical 
method,  which  was  gradually  improved  upon 
during  the  following  sixty  years.  In  1885 
electrical  processes  of  separation  were  first 
tried,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  production 
of  the  metal  on  a  large  scale,  causing  a  drop 
in  the  price  from  about  20s.  to  5s.  a  pound, 
commenced.  At  the  present  time  aluminium 
may  be  bought  at  prices  ranging  from  seven- 
pence  to  a  shilling  per  pound,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  metal  market  and  the  form  in 
which  it  is  required. 

The  most  noticeable  property  of  aluminium, 


Its  uses. 


its  low  specific  gravity — only  2*  65  times  that 
of  water — makes  it  very  valuable  for  many 
purposes  where  the  saving  of 
weight  is  important  ;  for  in- 
stance, in  the  crank-cases  of  motor-car  engines. 
The  same  quality,  combined  with  the  ease 
with  which  the  surface  may  be  kept  clean, 
makes  the  metal  very  suitable  for  cooking 
utensils.  Another  point  in  its  favour  is  its 
softness,  which  renders  it  easily  worked  on 
the  lathe,  rolled,  and  drawn.  In  combination 
with  certain  other  elements  it  forms  alloys 
which  are  very  tough  as  well  as  light,  and 
will  find  an  extended  sphere  of  usefulness  as 
their  advantages  are  more  fully  recognized. 

For  electrical  purposes  aluminium  is  be- 
coming a  formidable  rival  to  copper.  Its 
smaller  conductivity  and  tensile  strength  are 
more  than  offset  by  its  much  smaller  weight, 
so   that    aluminium  is   now  employed  exten- 


THE    KINLOCHLEVEN    ALUMINIUM    WORKS. 


27^ 


sively    for    the    transmission    of    high-tension 

current,  especially  in  America.  To  take  a 
couple  of  instances  :  alumin- 
ium donductors  deliver  current 
from  the  generating  station  at 

Snoqualmie  Falls  to  Tacoma,  44  miles  away  ; 

and  from  Electra  to  San  Francisco,  154  miles. 

Spans  are  made  longer  with  aluminium  than 


Aluminium 
Conductors. 


alumina  is  introduced.  The  current  passes 
from  one  pole  to  the  other  through  the  cryolite 
and  alumina,  encountering  a  resistance  which 
develops  an  exceedingly  high  temfMjrature, 
and  by  electrolytic  action  cau.ses  the  alumin- 
ium to  separate  and  sink  through  the  liquid 
cryolite  to  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  whence 
it  is  drawn  off. 


ARCrLLSHlRE 
SKETCH    MAP    SHOWING    THE    BLACK  WATER    DAM,  THE    CONDUIT,  THE    PIPE    TRACK,  AND    THE    FACTORIFS. 
The  broken  line  shows  the  route  of  the  cableway  used  for  transporting  material  from  the  loch  to  the  Dam  site. 


with  copper  conductors  —  one  across  the 
Niagara  River  is  of  2,192  feet — and  this 
effects  a  considerable  economy  in  poles  and 
standards. 

For  underground  insulated  cables  a  well 
as  fo  overhead  conductors  aluminium  has 
a  future  before  it.  When  one  considers  the 
enormous  development  of  electrical  power 
schemes,  and  the  fact  that  the  cheapening 
of  conductors  will  hasten  that  development, 
the  importance  of  aluminium  among  metals 
is  sufficiently  established  on  this  head  alone. 

The  electrical  method  of  reduction  consists, 
to  describe  it  briefly,  of  subjecting  pure  oxide 
of  aluminium — alumina — to  the  intense  heat 
of  an  electric  furnace.  The 
furnace  is  an  iron  box  lined 
with  carbon.  To  an  iron  plate 
at  the  bottom  is  attached  the  cathode,  or 
negative  pole,  of  the  dynamo.  The  positive 
pole  is  a  bundle  of  carbon  rods  so  arranged 
that  they  can  be  moved  vertically.  Cryolite 
is  fed  into  the  cell  and  melted,  and  then  the 

(1.408)  J  ^ 


The  Electric 
Furnace. 


The  alumina  used  is  prepared  by  drenching 
a  substance  called  bauxite  with  a  solution 
of  caustic  soda.  This  chemical  combines 
with  the  alumina  to  form  sodium  aluminate, 
which  is  subsequently  treated  with  hydrated 
alumina.  The  hydroxide,  when  dried,  is  ready 
for  the  furnace. 

As  the  electric  furnace  requires  a  large  vol- 
ume  of   current,  the  latter  must  be   obtain- 
able at  a  low  cost  to  render  the  manufacture 
of  the  metal  profitable.     The 
huge  power-stations  at  Niagara  r^eed 

Falls,   where  electrical  energv       /-  * 

'  ^^         Current. 

is  generated  on  so  large  a  scale 
that  current  is  remarkably  cheap,  have  led  to 
the  concentration  round  the  Falls  of  great  alu- 
minium factories,  and  have  made  the  district 
the  chief  world-centre  of  the  aluminium  in- 
dustry. In  the  British  Isles  manufacturers 
have  been  handicapped  by  lack  of  natural 
water-power.  We  have  no  waterfalls  over 
which  a  sufficient  volume  of  water  passes  at 
all   times   of  the  year  to  work  power  plants 

VOL.  in. 


274 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THE  UPSTREAM  SIDE  OF  THE  BLACKWATER  DAM,  WHICH  HOLDS  UT  A 
LAKE  OF  3,300,000,000  CUBIC  FEET  CAPACITY  AND  OVER  SEVEN 
MILES    LONG. 


comparing    in    size   with    those    of    America, 
Scandinavia,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  -] 

The  enterprise  which  forms  the  main  sub- 
ject of  this  article  has  overcome  the  difficulty 
by  impounding  at  a  high  level  the  water  of 
a  mountain  watershed,  and  so  ensuring  an 
abundant  supply  for  power 
requirements  from  year's  end 
to  year's  end. 

On  the  west  coast  of  Scot- 
land is  a  broad  sea  opening 
named  Loch  liinnhe,  sheltered 

from  the  open 

Atlantic  by  the 
Island  of  Mull.  Opposite  Bal- 
lachulish  the  loch  bifurcates. 
One  arm,  Loch  Eil,  runs  ten 
miles  or  so  in  a  north-east- 
erly direction,  and  then  turns 
abruptly  westwards  for  an- 
other ten  miles.  The  other 
arm,  Loch  Leven  —  which 
must  be  distinguished  from 
the  more  famous  loch  of  the 
same  name  in  Kinross — runs 
due  west,     A  mile  inland  from 


its  head,  on  the  river  Leven, 
is  Kinlochleven,  situated  amid 
the  wildest  of  scenery,  and 
yet  the  site  of  a  great  indus- 
try, for  here  are  established 
the  new  works  of  the  British 
Aluminium  Company,  opened 
early  in  1909.  No  chimneys 
belch  volumes  of  disfiguring 
smoke,  the  usual  accompani- 
ment of  manufactures — the 
air  is  as  pure  as  ever  it  was, 
for  King  Coal  does  not  rule  in 
this  industrial  village. 

Following  the  Leven  River 
5 1    miles    from    the   head   of 

the   loch,    we      ^ 

,  The  Dam. 

reach,    at    an 

elevation  of  about  1,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  a  huge  dam  of  concrete, 
nearly  three-quarters  of  a  mile  long,  stretch- 
ing from  side  to  side  of  the  valley.  It  is  80 
feet  high,  and  in  width  tapers  from  62  feet 
at  the  foundations — sunk  into  the  solid  rock 
— to  10  feet  at  the  top. 


Kinlochleven. 


A  BRIDGE  SECnON  OF  THE  REINFORCED  CONCRETE  CONDUIT  FOE 
LEADING  THE  WATER  FROM  THE  DAM  TO  THE  HEAD  OF  THE  PIPE 
LINES. 


THE    KINLOCHLEVEN    ALUMINIUM    WORKS. 


275 


The  dam  has  formed  a  lake  over  seven  miles 

long,  and  having  at  high-water  level  a  capa- 

.      city  of  3,300,000,000  cubic  feet. 
The  Reservoir.  __ 

Three    small    loclis  at  slightly 

different   elevations  have   been  swallowed  up 

by  this  great  sheet  of  water.     The  reservoir 

is  fed   by  the 

annual  rain- 
fall  of    about 

100  inches  on 

a     catchment 

area  of  be- 
tween 55  and 

60     square 

miles,  so  that 

there   is  little 

risk     of     the 

water     ever 

running  short, 

even     if     the 

factory  is  kept 

at  full  pres- 
sure. 

At  the  dam 

commences    a 

conduit  of  re- 
inforced con- 
crete,   8    feet 

square     in 

cross-section. 

This  leads  the 

water  3|  miles 

along  the  side 

of  the  valley, 

on  a  gradient 

of   1  in  1,000, 

to  a  penstock 

chamber   situated    965    feet    above    sea-level. 

From  the  penstock  chamber  the  water  passes 
through  six  —  there  will  be 
eight  eventually — parallel  lines 

of  39-inch  pipes  to  the  generating  station,  1  \ 

miles  from  and  922  feet  lower  vertically  than 

the  end  of  the  conduit. 

The  pipes,  made  of  solid  welded  steel,  are 


PIPE    TRACK    AS    SEEN    FROM    NEAR    THE    BOTTOM    END 
Observe  the  massive  anchorages  at  the  angles. 


The  Aqueduct. 


20  feet  long  each.  They  rest  on  concrete 
pedestals,  and  at  every  bend,  whether  in  the 
vertical  or  the  horizontal  plane,  are  attached 
to  massive  concrete  anchorages.  The  total 
weight  of  the  metal  in  the  six  lines  exceeds 
6,000  tons. 

At  the  sta- 
tion end  each 
pipe  line  com- 
municates 
with  two 
"  bus  "  pipes, 
both  of  which 
are  connected 
to  all  the 
water  tur- 
bines. This 
arrangement 
permits  the 
i  nspec  tion 
and  repair  of 
either  bus 
pipe  and  any 
one  of  the 
pipe  lines. 

The  form  of 
joint  used  is 
illustrated  by 
the  accom- 
panying dia- 
gram .  Lead 
caulking  of 
the  ordinary 
type  would 
not  be  suit- 
able for  pipes 
subjected  to 
such  high  pressures  as  these  have  to  bear — 
over  400  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  at  the  station 
end — and  exposed  to  the  open 
air.  The  "  muff  "  joint  em- 
ployed is  made  water-tight  with  a  packing 
of  rope  forced  into  the  space  between  the 
spigot  of  the  splayed  end  of  the  socket 
by  the  projecting  lip  of   a  collar  (A),  which 


Pipe  Joints. 


276 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


is  drawn  towards  the  socket  by  screw 
bolts  passing  through  it  and  a  second  collar 
(B),  embracing  the  splayed  portion  of  the 
socket.  This  collar  is  tapered  on  the  inside 
to  the  same  angle  as  the  socket.  The  tighten- 
ing up  of  the  bolts  forces  the  packing  into 
place,   and  also  presses  down  the  socket  on 


Pelton  Wheels. 


SECTION  THROUGH  A       MUFF 
JOINT    IN    USE  ON   THE    PIPE 
LINE. 


to    the    packing    by    virtue    of    the    wedging 
action  of  B. 

This  type  of  joint  permits  every  pipe  to 
expand  and  contract  longitudinally  without 
causing  leakage,  and  renders  it  possible  to 
insert  a  new  packing  while  a  pipe  is  under 
full  working  pressure. 

The  water  turbines  in  the  power-house  were 
made  by  Escher,  Wyss,  and  Co.  of  Zurich,  and 
are  of  the  well-known  high- 
pressure  Pelton  wheel  type, 
with  spoon-shaped  buckets  set  in  pairs  round 
the  circumference  of  the  wheels.  A  good 
idea  of  the  rotating  part  of  a  turbine, 
with  buckets  shaped  somewhat  differ- 
ently, is  afforded  by  the  photograph 
which  is  reproduced  by  permission  of 
the  Pelton  Wheel  Company  of  San 
Francisco. 

Nine  of  the  wheels  have  an  over-all 
diameter  of  8  feet,  and  an  output  of 
3,200  horse-power  each  ;  two  are  6  feet 
in  diameter,  and  develop  930  horse- 
power each.  The  water  strikes  the  very 
sharp  edge  of  the  wall  between  a  pair  of 
buckets,  and  is  deflected  right  and  left  round 
the  inside  of  the  buckets,  losing  practically 
all  its  velocity.  The  inner  surface  of  the 
buckets    is    polished    so    highly   that    98    per 


A   PELTON    WHEEL.       {Photo,  TJic  Pelton  Wheel  Company.) 

cent,  of  the  water's  energy  is  transmitted  to 
the  buckets. 


ixs 


rAXTANEOUS    PHOTOGRAPH   OF    WATER    ISSUING    PROM 
A    NOZZLE    AGAINST    A    PELTON    WHEEL. 

(Photo,  The  Pelton  Wheel  Company  ) 

The  water  is  projected  as  a  solid  bar  from 
a  specially  shaped  nozzle  of  very  hard  steel 
carefully  polished  inside.  The  supply  of  water 
is  regulated  by  means  of  a  concentric  tapered 
needle,  the  movements  of  which,  effected  by 


THE    KINLOCHLEVEN    ALUMINIUM    WORKS. 


±11 


Governing" 
the  Water. 


hand  or  by  an  automatic  governor,  pro- 
duce a  corresponding  change  of  the  dis- 
charge area  of  the  nozzle, 
and  so  vary  the  size  of  the 
jet  and  the  power  of  the 
wheel.  The  pressure  of  the  water  is  so 
great  that  the  needle  cannot  be  worked 
direct  from  the  governor,  but  requires  the 
interposition  of  a  servo-motor  to  do  the 
hard  work.  The  governor  itself  is  of  the 
familiar  centrifugal  weight  type.  An  in- 
crease of  speed  causes  two  weights,  sus- 
pended by  links  from  the  top  of  a  revolving 
vertical  shaft,  to  fly  outwards  and,  through 
t  wo  other  links,  to  move  upwards  a  grooved 
collar  sliding  on  the  shaft,  A  decrease 
in  speed  moves  the  collar  downwards. 

Tliis  collar  operates  a  small  valve,  which 
in  turn  controls  another  valve  admitting 
oil  or  water  under  high  pressure  to  either 
side  of  the  piston  of  a  servo-motor. 
Tliis  piston  is  coupled  direct  to  one  end 
of  a  lever,  which  is  the  first  of  a  series 
operating  the  nozzle  needle  valve. 

As  a  sudden  diminution  in  the  discharge 
would  naturally  cause   a  great  temporary 
increase  in  the  pressure  of  the  pipes,  the 
speed  governor  is  arranged  to  perforni  a  second 
duty — that  of  opening  an  escape  valve  when 
the  needle  valve  is  closed,  and  closing  it  when 
the  needle  valve  is  opened.     The  two  valves 
are  so  adjusted  that  under  all  conditions  the 
total  amount  of  water  passing  through  them 
remains  unaltered.     If  a  stoppage  of  the  tur- 
bine  becomes    necessary,    its    sluice    valve    is 
shut  gradually  by  hand. 

Each  turbine  is  connected  direct  to  a  pair 
of  generators  mounted  on  a  single  shaft  of 
mild  steel.  Each  of  the  main  generators  has 
a  normal  full  load  output  of   1,000  kilowatts, 


\^"-r<' 


^«aa 


The 
Generators. 


NTERIOR  VIEW  OF  THE  KINLOCHLEVEN  POWER-STATION, 
SHOWING  THE  EIGHT  3,200  HORSE-POWER  TURBINES, 
AND  THE  EIGHT  PAIRS  OF  GENERATORS  DRIVEN  BY 
THEM. 

when  rotating  at  its  normal  speed  of  300 
revolutions  per  minute.  As  these  generators 
have  to  run  at  full  pressure 
continuously  for  months  at  a 
time,  provision  is  made  for 
effecting  all  necessary  adjustments,  renewal  of 
brushes,  lubrication,  and  cleaning  while  they 
are  in  motion. 

Sets  of  smaller  dynamos  are  used  for  light- 
ing the  factory  and  village  and  generating 
current  for  the  double-track  electric  railway 
which  connects  the  factory  with  a  quay  at 
the  head  of  Loch  Leven. 


[Note. — Thanks  are  due  to  the  British  Aluminium  Company  Ltd.  for  supplying 

much  of  the  information   in  this   article  and  several  of 

the  illustrations.'] 


THE    ADJUSTING    TOGGLE    USED    FOR    LOWERING    THE    CANTILEVERS    OF    THE    RAILWAY    ARCH    BRIDGE, 

NIAGARA    FALLS. 

[Photo,  Pennsylvania  Steel  Company.) 


THE    ARCH    BRIDGES    OF 
NIAGARA    FALLS. 


This  article  describes  two  notable  feats  of  Bridge  Building-,  in  which  old  Bridges 
have  been  replaced  by  new  without  disorganizing  traffic. 


THE  deep  gorge  below  the  Niagara  Falls 
has  afforded  plentiful  opportunity  for 
the  exercise  of  the  bridge-builder's  art. 
Above  the  Falls  the  construction  of  a  bridge 
is  rendered  impracticable  by  the  width  of  the 
river  and  the  strength  of  the  current ;  and  as 
communication  between  the  two  banks  was, 
and  is,  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance, 
advantage  has  been  taken  from  time  to  time 
of  the  comparative  narrowness  of  the  chasm 
through  which  the  Niagara  River  flows  after 
its  great  leap. 

In  1848  Mr.  Charles  Ellet  erected  the  first 
of  the  many  bridges,  one  of  the  suspension 
type,  designed  for  light  traffic  only.  Two 
years  later  a  suspension  bridge  of  1,040  feet 
span — the  longest  of  its  time — was  added  be- 
tween  Queenston   and   Lewiston.     (This    was 


Successive 

Bridges  across 

the  Niagara 

Gorge. 


replaced  in  1 898  by  another  suspension  bridge 
of  modern  design.)  The  third  of  the  series 
w^as  the  suspension  bridge 
built  in  the  years  1853-55  by 
Mr.  J.  A.  Roebling  to  carry 
the  trains  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway.  In  its  original  form 
it  had  a  wooden  stiffening  truss  and  masonry 
towers.  The  truss  was  replaced  by  one  of 
steel  in  1880,  and  the  masonry  towers  by 
steel  towers  in  1886,  both  operations  being 
effected  without  disturbing  the  traffic.  The 
fourth  on  the  list  is  the  suspension  bridge  of 
1,268  feet  span  erected  by  Mr.  Samuel  Keefer 
in  1868,  between  Niagara  Falls  and  Clifton. 
It  was  too  narrow  to  serve  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  intended,  and  was  widened  in 
1886  ;   but  three  years  later  succumbed  to  the 


THE    ARCH    BRIDGES    OF    NIAGARA    FALLS. 


270 


buffeting  of  a  gale  which 
snapped  the  storm-guys,  broke 
the  ropes  suspending  the  stiffen- 
ing truss,  and  caused  the  latter 
to  fall  into  the  river.  Shortly 
after  this  disaster  the  bridge 
was  in  use  again,  with  a  new 
girder  attached  to  the  cables, 
which  fortunately  had  not  been 
damaged  by  the  accident. 

The  most  recent  of  the 
original  bridges  is  the  canti- 
lever structure  built  across  the 
gorge  in  1883  for  the  Michigan 
Central  Railroad.  This  bridge 
has  a  central  span  of  495  feet. 

Early  in  the  'nineties  it  be- 
came  evident   that   the   Grand 
Trunk  Railway  Bridge,  with  its 
single    track    of 

Need  for       rails,  was  inade- 
Replacing  the  ^^  ^^^  j^^^^_ 

Grand  Trunk   ,.  ,  ^ 

Railway         ^^"S   ^^'^    t^'^^^' 
Bridge.  ^^^  ^^^  task  of 

making  the  ne- 
cessary alterations  had  to  be 
faced.  It  was  decided  to  replace 
the  suspension  with  an  arch 
bridge  resting  on  four  points  of 
supports  half  way  between 
water  level  and  the  crests  of  the  cUfEs  on 
either  side  of  the  gorge. 

The  arch,  designed  by  and  erected  under  the 
supervision  of  Mr.  L.  L.  Buck,  M.Am.Soc.C.E., 
has  an  arch  span  of  550  feet,  connected  at 
each  end  with  the  bluff  by  a  girder  span  of 
115  feet.  Tlie  platform  truss  has  two  decks 
— an  upper  one  for  a  double  railway  track, 
a  lower  one  for  a  carriage  way  and  foot- 
passenger  paths. 

The  arch  was  designed  to  carry  a  load  of 
5,500  lbs.  per  foot  run  on  the 
upper,  and  3,000  lbs.  per  foot 
run  on  the  lower  deck.  One  important 
condition    of    the    contract    was    that   erect- 


The  Arch. 


CONSTRUCTING    THE    CANADIAN    SIDE    ABUTMENTS    FOR    THE    RAILWAY 

ARCH    BRIDGE. 


ing  operations  should  not  interfere  in  an\' 
way  with  the  running  of  trains  on  the  old 
structure  until  the  time  should  come  for 
transferring  the  traffic  to  the  new.  It  should 
be  pointed  out  here  that  the  axes  of  the  old 
and  new  bridges  coincided. 

Operations  commenced  with  the  erection  of 
timber  falseworks  to  support  the  shore  spans 
during  erection,  and  afford  a  path  over  which 
material    for    the    main    arch 
should     be     moved.         Tliese     Abutments 

1-11     1  3"d 

structures,  which  had  a  max-     gkewbacks. 

imum      height   of   more   than 

100  feet,  consumed  a  very  large  quant  it}-  of 

timber.     The  next  thing  to  be  done  was  to 


SETTING    THE    SKEWBACK    CASTINGS    FOR    ARCH    HINGES. 


THE    ARCH     BlMDdES    OF    NIAGARA    FALLS. 


281 


RAILWAY    ARCH    BRIDGE,    SHOWING    CONSTRUCTION    AS    ON    MARCH    K),    18U7. 

In  the  backgrouml  is  the  cantilever  bridge  of  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad. 


place  the  pedestals  of  the  skewbacks  at  the 
points  of  support  of  the  arch.  Each  pedestal 
was  a  casting  weighing  23  tons,  so  that  the 
task  of  getting  it  on  to  its  masonry  founda- 
tions and  aligning  it  with  the  exactitude  neces- 
sary to  ensure  the  accuracy  of  the  closing  of 
the  arch  was  not  an  easy  one.  The  impossi- 
bility of  erecting  any  support  in  mid-stream 
made  it  necessary  to  build  out  the  arch  as 
two  cantilevers  from  each  bank  to  a  point  of 
meeting.  To  give  proper  support  for  the 
cantilevers,  four  holes  were 
excavated  in  the  solid  rock  to 
receive  large  steel  grillages  filled  in  with  con- 
crete. These  grillages  took  the  strain  of  four 
sets  of  anchor  chains  running  to  the  tops  of 
the  first  bents  or  uprights  of  the  cantilever. 
Each  chain  was  composed  of  such  of  the  eye 
bars  and  top  chord  sections  of  the  115-foot 
spans  as  could  safely  be  used  for  the  purpose, 
and  of  odd  members  of  suitable  shape  and 
SLrengUi. 


The  designer  included  in  each  chain  a  toggle, 

or    diamond-shaped    frame,   hinged    at    each 

corner,  with  its  longer  diameter  lying  in  the 

direction   of    the   chain.      The 

outer    end    w^as    attached    to       J"    . 

Toggles. 
the    chain,    the    inner    to    the 

anchorage.  Through  the  top  and  bottom 
hinges  passed  a  right-  and  left-handed 
screw,  17  feet  long  and  9^  inches  in  diameter, 
furnished  with  a  capstan,  the  turning  of  which 
would  alter  the  shape,  and  consequently  the 
length,  of  the  toggle,  and  move  any  weight 
supported  by  the  chain.  (See  diagram  on 
page  285.)  This  device  made  it  an  easy 
matter  to  adjust  the  positions  of  the  canti- 
levers exactly  when  the  time  came  to  join 
up  the  arch.  Twelve  men  at  each  of  the 
two  capstans  sufficed  to  lower  a  cantilever, 
and  double  that  number  was  required  to 
raise  it,  the  complete  cantilever  weighing 
about  500  tons.  The  toggles  proved  an  entire 
success.     Thanks  to  the  care  with  which  the 


282 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Travellers. 


ARCH   CONNECTED,    MARCH   28,    1897. 

pedestals  had  been  placed  and  the  arms  built 
out,  the  rivet  holes  at  the  ends  of  the  arms 
overlapped  within  a  small  fraction  of  ah  inch, 
when  the  toggles  were  slacked  away,  to  the 
extent  calculated  beforehand. 

Two  "  travellers,"  running  on  the  top  chord 
of  the  new  structure,  were  used  to  build  out 
the  cantilevers.  After  the  arch  had  been 
closed,  the  lower  floor,  carry- 
ing the  tracks  for  trolley  cars 
and  road  traffic,  was  built  up,  and  employed 
to  bear  the  weight  of  the  old  suspension  truss, 
which  could  then  be  removed  piece  by  piece 
to  make  room  for  the  upper  deck.  As  soon 
as  this  part  of  the  work  was  completed,  it  only 
remained  to  cut  and  remove  the  cables  and 
to  demolish  the  towers.  For 
\  the  official  tests  the  bridge  was 
loaded  with  trains  made  up  of  several  ten- 
wheeled  "  consolidation  "  locomotives,  and  of 
coal  cars  burdened  with  rails,  to  bring  up  the 
total  weight  to  7,000  lbs.  per  foot  run.  The 
deflection  at  the  centre  of  the  arch  proved 
to   be   slightly   less   than    one   inch,    a   result 


Brids^e  Test. 


which    was    considered    to    be    highly    satis- 
factory. 

The  replacement  of  the  Niagara  Falls  and 
Clifton   road    traffic    suspension    bridge   by   a 
steel  arch  bridge   comprised   operations  very 
similar  to  those  required  for 
the    construction    of   the   rail-    '^^  Niagara 
way     arch     bridge     described  ciifton^B^r"dge. 
above.     The   same   system   of 
toggle   adjustment   in   the   anchor   links   was 
used,   and  the  two  halves  of  the  arch  were 
built   out   as   independent   cantilevers  to   the 
point  of  closure. 

If  for  no  other  reason,  this  bridge  would 
be  remarkable  on  account  of  its  great  span, 
which  gives  it  at  present  the  first  place  among 
the  single-arch  bridges  of  the 
world.  Its  main  span  of  840 
feet  has  as  yet  not  been  ap- 
proached within  a  couple  of  hundred  feet  by 
that  of  any  other  similar  structure.  The 
central  span  is  connected  with  the  top  of 
the  bluff  of  the  gorge  by  inverted  bowstring 


Its  Huge 
Arch  Span. 


THE    ARCH    BRIDGES    OF    NIAGARA    FALLS. 


283 


girders,  190  and  210  feet  long,  on  the  New 
York  and  Canadian  sides  respectively.  Tlie 
arch  lias  two  parabolic  braced  ribs,  about  26 
feet  deep,  divided  into  twenty  main  panels 
42  feet  long.  From  the  top  of  each  of  the 
main     panel     points     vertical 

Details  of  latticed  posts  extend  to  the 
floor  of  the  bridge,  whicli 
they  support.  At  the  skewbacks  the  ribs  are 
68  h  feet  apart,  centre  to  centre  ;  at  the  middle 
of  the  arch,  30  feet  apart.  The  hinges  at  the 
skewbacks,  which  take  the  entire  weight  of 
the  arch,  are  pins  5  feet  long  and  12  inches 
in  diameter.  The  floor  of  the  bridge  is  46  feet 
3  inches  wide,  divided  longitudinally  into  two 
outer  side-walks,  3  feet  9  inches  wide  each, 
a  central  double  trolley  car  track,  22  feet  9 
inches  wide  ;  and  two  8-foot  carriage  ways  be- 
tween car  tracks  and  side-walks.  Mr.  L.  L. 
Buck  was  engineer  in  charge  of  the  construc- 
tion of  this  bridge  also. 

Some    of    the    clauses    in    the    specification 

furnished  to  the  contractors,  the  Pencoyd  Iron 

Works,  may  be  of  interest  to  the  layman,  as 

showing   what   conditions   are 

Clauses  in     exacted  in  work  of  this  kind  : — 

^     ^."  ^^^.  "  Rivets  must  completely  fill 

Specification.  ^         *^ 

their  holes. 

"  No  rivet  driven  either  by  hand  or  machine 
may  be  caulked  or  recupped. 

"  Before  final  assembling  for  riveting,  all 
surfaces  which  will  be  inaccessible  afterwards 
must  receive  a  thorough  coat  of  red-lead  paint. 

''All  sheared  edges  must  have  a  i-inch  of 
material  removed  by  planer  afterwards. 

"  Pin  holes  must  be  bored  accurately  to  a 
diameter  of  sV-inch  larger  than  the  pins  they 
are  to  receive. 

"  All  pin  holes  must  be  smooth  and  accu- 
rately bored. 

"  Loops  in  iron  rods  must  be  so  welded  that 
the  weld  shall  be  strong  enough  to  break  the 
body  of  the  rod." 

A  difficulty  that  the  engineers  had  to  face 
was  that  the  centre  line  of  the  new   bridge 


did  not  coincide  with,  or  run  parallel  to,  that 
of    the    old    bridge.     At    the 
Canadian   end  they    met  ;     at 


Difficulties  to 
be  overcome. 


the  other  they  were  nearly  17 
feet  apart,  the  new  bridge  being  south  of  the 
old.  This  was  due  to  the  Cataract  Construc- 
tion Company's  discharge  tunnel  having  its 
outlet  at  the  point  where  otherwise  the  New 
York  skewbacks  would  have  been  placed. 
Another  difficulty  lay  in  the  fact  that  the 
north  rib  of  the  arch  would  strike  the  bottom 
chord  of  the  north  stiffening  truss  of  the  sus- 
pension bridge  about  100  feet  from  the  centre. 
This  necessitated  the  reinforcing  of  the  top 
half  of  the  trusses,  so  that,  when  the  time 
should  arrive,  the  bottom  half  might  be  cut 
away  without  rendering  the  trusses  useless. 

The  plan  adopted  for  the  construction  ol 
the  arch  was  as  follows  :  To  start  the  arch  in 
such  a  manner  that  at  a  temperature  of  60° 
Fahrenheit  the  bottom  chords 

of   the  arch   should   meet   ex-        ^^^"  *°'" 

.        ,     .  Erecting  the 

actly,    and    be    pmned    tem-  Arch 

porarily,  to  form  a  three- 
hinged  arch.  (The  other  two  hinges  would, 
of  course,  be  at  the  skewbacks.)  The  top 
chords  of  the  two  panels  nearest  the  centre, 
hitherto  omitted,  would  then  be  finished,  and 
subjected  to  pressure  to  impart  the  due 
amount  of  stress  while  they  were  joined  up, 
so  converting  the  structure  into  a  two-hinged 
arch. 

The   anchorages   for   the   bars  which  \\ould 
take  the  weight  of  the  cantilevers  during  erec- 
tion were  sunk  in  pits  of  such  depth  that  the 
weight  of  rock  above  would  of 
itself  suffice  to  counteract  the     Anchorages 

u      c   4.1  w  ^  4.'    *"^  Anchorage 

pull   of   the   completed   canti-  Bars 

levers.  Next  to  an  anchorage 
came  a  toggle  joint,  to  the  outer  end  of  which 
was  attached  the  first  of  the  anchor  links  run- 
ning to  the  top  of  the  first  post.  To  support 
a  cantilever  and  distribute  the  strains  prop- 
erly, secondary  anchorage  bars  ran  from  the 
top  of  tlie  first  post  to  panel  points  2,   4,   6, 


284 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


8,  10,  12,  and  a  main  line  of  bars  to  panel 
point  14.  With  the  exception  of  the  last, 
these  bars  had  a  screw  adjustment  at  their 
lower  ends.  That  running  to  panel  point  14 
was  of  exactly  the  length  calculated  to  be 
sufficient.  After  the  closing  of  the  arch  all 
these  bars  were,  of  course,  removed. 

Work   on   the   foundations    began   on   Sep- 


anchor  bars.  Then  the  toggle  joints  were 
opened  to  pull  the  first  bent  back  slightly, 
and  give  the  cantilever  such  an  upward 
inclination  that  the  sagging  caused  by  the 
gradual  addition  of  weight  should  bring  the 
extremity  of  the  cantilever  into  the  exact 
vertical  position  for  closure  with  the  end  of 
the  other  cantilever. 


ALL    STEELWORK    ERECTED,    JULY    31,    1897. 

tember   9,    1895,    and  was   completed   on   the 
first  day  of  the  following  June.     The  heaviest 
items  to  be  handled  were  the 
*^"h   M+*^"^    pedestals   of  the   arch,   weigh- 
ing  16  tons  each,   which   had 
to  be  brought  to  the  edge  of  the  gorge  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  and  lowered  into  place 
by  means  of  tackle  attached  to  the  cables  of 
the  suspension  bridge.     When 


Handling 
Material. 


Cantilevers 
commenced. 


the  hinges  were  in  place,  the 
arch  was  built  out  to  panel 
point  2  on  timber  falsework,  and  attached 
at  that  point  to  the   first   of   the   secondary 


Owing  to  the  non-coincidence  of  the  centre 
lines  of  the  old  and  new  bridges,  the  handling 
of  material  could  not  be  effected  as  conven- 
iently as  in  the  case  of  the 
railway  arch,  and  the  stiffen- 
ing trusses  of  the  suspension 
bridge  had  to  be  employed  to  support  for 
cranes  with  jibs  swinging  out  laterally.  To 
avoid  undue  twisting  and  straining  of  the 
trusses,  loads  had  to  be  lowered  from  both 
sides  of  the  cranes  simultaneously,  and  the 
weight  of  a  single  load  had  to  be  restricted  to 
6  tons.     Interference  of  the  truss  suspenders 


THE    ARCH    BRIDGES    OF    NIAGARA    FALLS. 


285 


with  the  jibs  was  provided  for  by  shifting  the 
jibs  vertically. 

When  construction  had  reached  panel  point 
15  on  the  Canadian  side,  and  point  17  on  the 
New   York  side,   it   became   necessary  to  re- 
move the  entire  floor  system 
Interference    ^f    ^^^e    suspension    bridge    to 
with  Old  ^  .  ,     .  ,, 

Bridge.         S^^®     ^°°"^     ^^^     closmg     the 
arch.      The  old  bridge  trusses 
were   therefore   removed  entirely,  except    the 
top    chords,  between    the    points    mentioned, 

CAPSTAN 

jroccLE 


completed,  a  timber  floor,  supported  by  the 
suspension  cables,  was  built  across  the  gap, 
and  road  traffic  was  resumed  after  an  inter- 
ruption of  but  four  days. 

Construction  was  greatly  hampered  at  this 
period  by  rain  and  by  very  high  winds,  which 
deposited  the  icy  mist  from 
the  Falls  on  the  steel  work  and 
ropes,  making  work  very  dan- 
gerous for  the  men.  No  accident  of  any  kind 
occurred,  however,  and  in  due  course  the  clo- 


Climatic 
Obstacles. 


DIAGRAM    TO    SHOW    METHOD    OF    ANCHORING    THE    CANTILEVERS    OF    THE    NIAGARA    FALLS    AND 

CLIFTON    ARCH    DURING    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  (lotted  lines  indicate  the  anchorage  bars  carried  irom  the  top  of  Bent  No.  0  to  Panel  points  2,  4,  G,  8,  10,  12,  14,  to 
support  the  cantilever  until  closure  with  its  follow.  The  adjustable  toggle  and  anchorage  are  represented  on  a  greatly 
exaggerated  scale. 


and  erection  proceeded  as  usual.  The 
north  rib  of  the  arch  rose  between  the  two 
cables  of  the  old  bridge,  and  the  south  rib 
some  distance  outside.  As  the  south  cable 
was  in  line  with  the  two  top  chords  of  the 
arch,  the  horizontal  cross  bracing  between  the 
top  chords  could  not  be  added  at  once,  and 
its  place  was  taken  by  temporary  timber 
struts  resting  against  the  lower  chords.  On 
April  17,  1897,  the  lower  chords  of  the  two 
cantilevers  met,  and  with  such  precision  that 
the  pull  exerted  by  an  ordinary  hand  winch 
sufficed  to  draw  the  eyes  into  the  exact  posi- 
tion which  allowed  the  driving  of  the  great 
centre  pins.     The  closure  of  the  bottom  chords 


Exactitude  in 
Calculation. 


sure  of  the  top  chords  was  effected  with  the 
aid  of  hydraulic  rams.  After  the  adjustment 
of  the  arch  had  been  completed,  the  joints  of 
the  chords  were  all  examined, 
and  found  to  be  absolutely 
perfect,  no  packing  between 
bearing  surfaces  or  reaming  of  rivet  holes 
being  required.  The  results  attained  indicated 
an  exactness  of  calculation,  field  measure- 
ments, and  shop  work  rarely  if  ever  equalled.* 
After  the  final  closure  the  anchorage  bars 
were  removed,  and  the  vertical  bents  to  sup- 
port the  roadway  erected  wherever  the  trusses 
of    the    old    bridge    permitted.     Then    com- 

*  Engineering. 


THE    ARCH    BRIDGES    OF    NIAGARA    FALL8. 


287 


niencod  the  laying  of  the  steol  floor  system, 
this  part  of  the  work  being  conducted  from 
the  centre  outwards.  Openings  were  left  in 
the  floor  for  the  south  suspension  cables,  wliich 
were  not  removed  until  the  bridge  had  been 
completed  except  for  the  fiUing-in  of  these 
openings.  In  short,  the  floor  system  was 
built  round  the  cables. 

While  the  floor  was  laid  between  panel 
pomts  18  on  each  side  of  the  centre,  the 
bridge  had  to  be  closed  to  traflic  for  one  day. 
During  the  rest  of  this  part  of  the  construction 
two  movable  bridges  were  used,  and  shifted 
along  to  span  the  gaps  between  the  completed 
arch  flooring  and  that  of  the  suspension 
bridge,  as  lengths  of  the  latter  were  demoUshed 
to  make  room  for  the  steelwork. 

The  building  of  the  arch  itself  occupied  but 
thirty-two  working  days,  and  the  erection  of  the 
2,200  tons  of  steelwork  was  completed  in  less 
than  six  months — a  remarkable  achievement, 
considering  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome. 


An  Ice  Jam 
and  its 
Results. 


During  January  of  1899  ice  came  from  the 
Falls  in  great  quantities,  and  piled  up  in  the 
gorge  to  a  height  of  25  feet  above  water.  The 
ice  -  field,  firmly  anchored  to 
both  shores,  gradually  thick- 
ened downwards,  and  choked 
the  waterway,  so  causing  the 
water  to  rise  until  it  flowed  over  the  ice.  The 
increased  hydrostatic  pressure  broke  the  jam. 
The  ice  swept  down  the  gorge  to  the  masonry 
abutments  of  the  new  bridge,  rose  above  them, 
and  struck  the  steelwork  of  the  ribs,  by  which 
it  was  shaved  away  quite  cleanly.  The 
bridge  quivered  from  end  to  end,  but  did 
not  sway.  After  the  ice  had  passed,  and  an 
examination  of  the  bridge  was  possible,  the 
damage  was  found  to  be  confined  to  the  bend- 
ing of  four  members,  which  were  straightened 
immediately.  During  the  next  summer,  as  a 
precaution  against  future  troubles  of  the  same 
kind,  heavy  concrete  walls  were  built  round 
the  abutments. 


[Note. — For  the  photographic  illustrations  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Bailtvay  Bridge 

which  accompany  this  article,  we  are  indebted  to  the 

Penyisylvania  Steel  Company. '\ 


^j,^:^^/.^Ji 


H 


-^ 


OLD-FASHIONED   THRESHING    OUTFIT    USED    NEAR    CALGARY,    ALBERTA. 

(Photo,  by  courtesy  of  the  Canadian  Government.) 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 


A  GRICULTURE  is  the  greatest  of  all 
/-\  industries,  as  regards  the  number  of 
-*■  -^  people  who  busy  themselves  in  it, 
and  is  also  the  most  important,  since  on  it 
ultimately  we  depend  for  our  very  existence. 
A  single  general  failure  of  the  world's  harvests 
would  depopulate  the  globe,  so  small  are  our 
reserves  of  provisions.  In  former  times,  when 
means  of  distribution  were  undeveloped,  large 
districts  —  even  whole  countries  —  suffered 
famine  inevitably  as  the  result  of  crops  being 
ruined  by  unseasonable  weather.  Even  to-day 
— witness  parts  of  Russia,  India,  and  China 
— the  same  evil  recurs  with  distressing  fre- 
quency. 

To  make  easy  the  distribution  of  food-stuffs 

we  have  built  thousands  of  miles  of  railway, 

and     constructed     fleets     of     ships     specially 

adapted    for    conveying    grain 

The  Value  of  ^^^  ^^^^^  food-stuffs  in  bulk. 

Machinery.  . 

Our  engineers  have  carried  out 

— as  noticed  on  previous  pages — many  great 

works    for    rendering    cultivable    large    tracts 

which   are   naturally   unproductive   owing   to 

the    absence    of    a    sufficient    and    well-dis- 


tributed rainfall.  But  all  these  achievements 
would  be  deprived  of  half  their  value  had 
not  the  actual  tillage  of  the  ground  and  the 
sowing  and  gathering  of  the  crops,  and  the 
preparation  of  the  same  for  market,  received 
a  proportionate  share  of  the  attention  of  the 
engineer.  It  is  true  that  agriculture  can  be, 
and  has  been  for  many  thousands  of  years, 
conducted  with  the  simplest  of  tools.  But 
the  simpler  the  tools  the  greater  must  be  the 
number  of  persons  required  to  use  them  to 
effect  a  given  quantity  of  work  ;  and  had 
we  persisted  in  the  agricultural  methods  of 
even  a  century  ago,  the  proportion  of  persons 
employed  on  the  land  would  be  necessarily 
so  many  times  greater  than  it  is,  that  other 
industries  upon  which  we  depend  for  our  com- 
fort could  not  have  reached  their  present  stage 
of  development. 

The  introduction  of  highly  efficient  agricul- 
tural machinery  has  not  only  relieved  the 
labour  market  and  cheapened  the  price  of 
food-stuffs ;  it  has  also  enabled  the  farmer 
to  make  fuller  use  of  weather  suitable  for  the 
preparation  of  the  land  and  the  ingathering 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 


289 


of  his  crops  with  the  labour  which  he  can 
command  at  short  notice — a  fact  whereof  the 
importance  can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 
As  much  work  is  now  done  by  one  man  and 
a  machine  as  formerly  by  "twenty  men  with- 
out machines.  In  some  of  the  latest  types 
of  implements  it  may  be  said  that  they  are 
well  -  nigh  independent  of  human  control, 
doing  their  work  almost  as  automatically  as 
the  most  wonderful  of  the  mechanisms  to  be 
found  in  our  factories.  Their  variety  is  so 
great  that  in  the  following  pages  we  must 
restrict  ourselves  to  noticing  those  which  are 
of  greatest  general  interest. 

To  begin  at  the  logical  point — namely,  the 
breaking-up  of  the  land  in 
readiness  for  the  sowing — we 
may  consider,  first  of  all,  the 
ploughs,  cultivators,  harrows, 
and  other  earth-shifting  de- 
vices moved  by  the  agency  of 
steam. 

The  system  of  steam  tillage 
originated  about  half  a  cen- 
tury   ago,    when    an    English 

_  engineer,  John 

Steam  Tillage.  ^  ^  , 

Jb  owler,    mtro- 

duced  a  steam  tackle  for  oper- 
ating a  plough  with  three  or 
more  shares.  Tlie  apparatus 
included,  besides  a  st^am-en- 
gine  and  the  plough,  a  self- 
acting  wheeled  anchor  placed 
on  the  farther  side  of  the  field 
opposite  to  the  engine.  The 
\vire  cable  used  to  draw  the 
plough  passed  round  a  drum 
on  the  engine,  thence  across 
the  field  to  the  anchor,  and 
round  a  sheave  on  the  last 
back  of  the  plough.  The 
anchor  sheave  could  be  thrown 
into  gear  with  a  drum,  which 
wound  in  a  rope  passed  round 
a  pulley  fixed  at  a   point  on 

a.408) 


the  headland,  and  shifted  from  time  to  time 
as  the  work  progressed.  By  means  of  this 
secondary  tackle  the  anchor  was  advanced  as 
required  to  keep  abreast  of  the  engine. 

The  single-engine  system  is  still  used,  with 
the  improvements  evolved  by  experience,  but 
only  to  a  very  small  extent  as  compared  with 
the  double-engine  system  introduced  in  1865, 
whereby  the  plough  or  other  implement  is 
drawn  backwards  and  forwards  by  two  engines 
working  alternately,  the  "  idle  "  one  paying 
out  cable  while  the  other  winds  it  in. 

The  advantages  of  power  over  animal  cul- 
tivation are  not  confined  to  greater  speed  of 
work.     Cable-drawn   implements   are  able   to 


FOWLKR  S    IMPROVED    COMPOUND   SELF-MOVING    PLOUGHING    ENGINE, 
FLYWHEEL   SIDE. 
fowler's    ploughing    ENGINE,    WITH    VERTICAT.    WINDING    DRUM. 
19  VOL.     III. 


290 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


move  the  ground  to  much  greater  depths— a 
yard  or  more  if  required — than  is  possible 
where  animal  draught  only  is 
Advantages  employed.  Land  which  has 
been  cultivated  for  several 
years  by  animal  power  develops, 
in  many  cases,  a  hard  stratum  a  few  inches 
below  the  surface  as   the   result  of   constant 


of  Deep 
Ploughing. 


ordinary     cable     ploughing     are     compound, 
have   steam  -  jacketed   cylinders,  a   two-speed 
travelling    gear,    and,    if    re- 
quired,   two    speeds    on    the       „^  ? 

^  Engines. 

ploughing  gear      They  can  be 

adapted  to  burn  oil,  fuel,  or  straw  in  countries 
where  these  fuels  are  more  economical  or 
more  easily  obtained  than  coal.     The  winding 


PUNT   PLOUGHING   TACKLE    AT   WORK. 


[Photo,  Messrs.  John  Fowler  and  Company.) 


Where  drainage  or  irrigation  canals  can  be  made  to  serve  as  heatllands,  ploughing  engines  are  sometimes  carried  in 

suitable  punts. 


trampling.  It  is  estimated  that  horses  make 
a  footmark  on  every  square  foot  of  land 
turned  up  by  them.  The  hard  "  pan  "  thus 
created  prevents  roots  penetrating  to  the 
subsoil,  and  also  holds  up  surface  water 
in  wet  weather.  Deep  ploughing,  conducted 
at  high  speed,  pulverises  the  land,  opens 
up  the  subsoil,  and  allows  both  roots  and 
moisture  to  find  their  way  downwards  easily. 
In  the  case  of  a  long  drought,  deeply  ploughed 
ground  acts  as  a  natural  reservoir,  and  supplies 
the  growing  plants  above  with  moisture  long 
after  shallow  ploughed  ground  would  have 
been  parched  up. 

The  most  highly  developed  engines  used  for 


drum  is  usually  carried  under  the  boiler  on 
a  vertical  axis  ;  for  special  purposes  it  is  set 
vertically  at  the  side,  as  shown  in  one  of  our 
illustrations.  In  addition  to  its  agricultural 
duties,  the  ploughing  engine  serves  as  an  or- 
dinary tractor,  and  to  work  threshing,  chaff- 
cutting,  and  other  machines. 

Coming  now  to  the  implements  required  for 
cultivation,  we  may  begin  with  the  ploughs. 
These  can  be  classified  under  two  headings — 
the  balance  *  and  the  turn-round. 

*  Despite  its  name,  Messrs.  Fowler's  balance  plough  is 
fitted  with  a  gear  which  automatically  moves  the  carriage  for- 
ward of  the  centre  of  gravity,  whichever  way  the  plough  may 
be  travelling,  so  as  to  concentrate  more  than  half  the  weight 
on  the  shares  in  work  and  prevent  any  tendency  to  jump. 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 


291 


The  first  of    these  is  dis- 
tinguished   by   two    sets    of 
shares    mounted    on    frames 
set  at  an  ob- 

"^r^/yPf^     tuse  angle  to 
of  Plough.  ^   , 

one    another 

in  the  vertical  plane  fore  and 
aft.  From  each  end  of  the 
plough  a  cable  runs  to  an 
engine.  The  end  to  which 
the  pull  is  imparted  falls  and 
engages  with  the  ground, 
raising  the  other,  or  free, 
end  into  the  air.  The  shares 
are  so  arranged  that  which- 
ever set  of  shares  may  be 
working,  the  furrows  shall 
be  turned  over  in  the  same 
direction.  This  type  of  plough  is  most  com- 
monly used  on  land  which  has  been  under 
cultivation  for  some  time  for  cereal  and  root 


crops. 

The  turn-round  plough  also  has  two  sets  of 


RIDGER        AT    WORK. 

(Photo,  Messrs.  John  Fowler  and  Company.) 


A    BALANt  K    insu    FLuLutl     11  KMMi    IN    A    GREEN    CHOP. 

Observe  the  forward  (idle)  limb  projoctins;  upwards. 

{Photo,  Messrs.  John  Fowler  and  Company.) 

shares,  but  in  this  case  they  are  both  arranged 
behind  the  supporting  wheels.  When,  on 
reaching  the  end  of  a  bout,  the  plough  gets 
the  pull  of  the  engine  on  the  other  side  of 
the  field,  it  rotates  through  half  a  circle, 
automatically  raising  one  set  of  skives  and 
mould  boards  and  depressing  the  other. 

For  ploughing  in  green  crops  discs  can  be 
substituted  for  the  skives  and  mould  boards 
of  either  type. 

Subsoil  ploughs  are  fitted  with  tynes  be- 
hind the  plough  bodies  to  break  up  the  land 
below  the  furrow  without  bringing  it  to  the 
surface,  and  so  to  improve  the 
drainage  while  increasing  the 
moisture-retaining  capacity  of 
the  soil.  For  breaking  up  land  for  the  culti- 
vation of  sugar-cane,  beet,  tobacco,  and  vines, 
and  for  preparing  heath  for  afforestation,  spe- 
cial ploughs  are  made,  their  strength  being 
proportionate  to  the  exceptionally  heavy  work 
which  they  have  to  perform.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  here  that  the  afforestation  of  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  waste  land  has  become 
possible  only  through  the  agency  of  the  steam 
plough.  The  following  passage  from  the 
Breslau  Morgeji  Zeitung  describes  graphically 


Special 
Ploughs. 


292 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


A   HEATH    PLOUGH    BREAKING    LAND    FOR 
AFFORESTATION. 

the  behaviour  of  a  Fowler  trenching  plough 
in  an  area  of  suburban  land  broken  up  for  tree 
planting  : — "  The  ploughing  of  this  land  pre- 
sents considerable  difficulty,  as  at  about  the 
middle  of  the  land  in  question  there  is  a  vein 
of  bog  iron-ore  running  from  east  to  west. 
In  the  southern  part,  with  its  light,  sandy  soil, 

the  plough  makes  its  deep 
Very  Hard  ^^^^^  without  difficulty,  but 
Work.  .       ,         .,1,     .1  , 

in  the  middle  the  steel  shares 

begin  to  creak  and  groan.  The  plough  only 
moves  forward  by  fits  and  starts.  But  the 
engine  power  conquers  the  elementary  power 
of  the  ore  veins.  The  stones  break  with  a 
crash,  and  are  slowly  but  surely  forced  out  of 
the  upper  edge  of  the  furrow  by  the  mould 
board.  Colossi  of  from  1,100  to  1,650  lbs. 
weight  are  then  thrown  up  like  mere  sods. 
Only  engines  of  powerful  build  and  solid  con- 
struction can  perform  such  a  task.  The 
trench  is  made  quite  smoothly,  and  the  whole 
work  proceeds  so  noiselessly  that  the  humming 
and  puffing  of  the  working  engine  can  scarcely 
be  heard." 

By    means    of    the    same,    or    a    somewhat 
similar  machine,  marshy  land 
ramage  o      ^^      ^^q  drained  and  rendered 
Swamps.       _    ;:  ,  .  .. 

nt  tor  cultivation.     About  ten 

years  ago  an  Algerian  swamp,  once  a  favour- 
ite  resort    of    sportsmen,  and  also  a  source 


of  malarial  fever,  was  thus  converted  into 
vineyards  or  corn  land.  The  task  of  effecting 
the  drainage  was  extremely  difficult,  as  the 
ploughs  sank  repeatedly  into  quagmires,  and 
special  causeways  had  to  be  constructed  to 
bear  the  engines  ;  but  eventually  the  land 
was  deprived  of  its  surplus  moisture,  and,  by 
a  succession  of  operations,  made  to  produce 
fine  crops  of  grapes  and  corn.  It  is  certain 
that  such  work  could  not  have  been  carried 
out  by  hand  labour,  except  at  a  cost  which 
would  have  deterred  any  one  but  a  wealthy 
philanthropist  from  undertaking  the  enter- 
prise. 

A  particularly  ingenious  drainage  machine, 
known  as  a  "  mole  drainer,"  is 
used  in  a  strong  clay  subsoil 
naturally  impervious  to  water. 
The  drain  is  cut  by  a  vertical  share  carrying 
at  its  lower  end  a  cylindrical  body  pointed  off 


The  Mole 
Drainer. 


A   TRENCHING   MACHINE. 

One  of  these  will  make  trenches  up  to  2  feet  in  depth  and 
up  to  3  feet  in  width. 

(Photo,  Messrs.  John  Fowler  and  Company.) 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 


293 


in  front  and  drawing  behind  it,  by  a 
short  chain,  an  egg-shaped  tail  which 
consoHdates  the  sides  of  the  drain.  Tliis 
machine  proves  most  effective  in  land 
which  has  a  slight  natural  slope.  If  no 
suitable  ditch  exists  already,  a  main 
drain  is  dug  by  hand  along  the  lower  side 
of  the  field,  and  at  regular  intervals  on 
the  uphill  side  of  the  drain  are  cut  small 
excavations,  called  "  eyes,"  to  act  as 
starting-points  for  the  mole  drainer.  As 
it  approaches  the  uphill  boundary  the 
mole  is  raised  gradually  to  the  surface  a 
by  means  of  self-acting  gear.  When  the 
drain  cutting  is  complete,  the  eyes  and  main 
drain  are  filled  in  with  tiles.  The  surface 
water  finds  its  way  down  through  the  vertical 
slits  cut  by  the  share  into  the  "  mole  runs,'' 
and  by  them  is  carried  to  the  main  drain. 
In  very  stiff  land  the  drains  cut  by  the 
machine  will  keep  open  for  more  than 
twenty  years.  Even  if  the  operation  has  to 
be  repeated  at  lesser  periods,  the  accumulated 
cost  of  several  repetitions  is  much  smaller 
than  that  of  laying  pipes,  and  is  much  more 
effective. 

After  the  ploughing,  the  seeding.     Machine 
drills  have — in  highly  civilized    countries,    at 
any  late — entirely  superseded  broadcast  sow- 
ing of  corn  and  small  seed  by 

Seeding  and    j^g_jj^      rj^^ie   machine   does   its 

-,     .  .  work    with    a   regularity   that 

machines.  ^  ^ 

cannot     be     approached     by 

human  agency.  Special  devices  are  used  for 
planting  beans  and  potatoes.  The  bean 
planter  drills  a  hole,  drops  in  a  bean,  and 
covers  it  up.  The  potato  is  treated  in  a 
similar  manner,  after  having  been  cut  up  into 
halves  or  quarters,  if  the  farmer  so  wishes. 
Then  there  are  the  machines  for  setting  young 
plants,  for  weeding,  for  loosening  or  gathering 
root  crops,  many  of  them  so  exact  in  their 
operation  that  they  seem  almost  to  be  en- 
dowed with  intelligence. 

Next   we   come   to    the   reaping    machines, 


MOLE    DRAINER,   WITH    TYNE    AT    WORK. 

which    are    perhaps    the    most    interesting    of 

all  agricultural  implements.     Though  on  many 

farms,  especially  on  small  ones, 

the  horse-drawn  plough  is  still      ..     .  .    ^ 

Machines. 
used   for  cultivation,  when  it 

comes  to  reaping  the  primitive  scythe  and 
sickle  are  employed  only  when  conditions 
prevent  the  employment  of  a  machine. 

Almost  eighty  years  have  now  passed  since 
Cyrus  H.  M'Cormick,  the  son  of  a  Virginian 
farmer,  produced  his  first  reaper  with  a  many- 
bladed  cutter  bar  vibrated  rapidly  to  and  fro 
between  steel  teeth  by  gearing  driven  off  the 
ground  wheels — such  as  is  still  used  for  mow- 
ing hay.  The  Hussey  reaper,  a  somewhat 
similar  device,  appeared  a  couple  of  years 
later,  and  for  a  decade  the  two  rivals  com- 
peted against  each  other  in  all  parts  of  the 
States.  Then  M'Cormick  developed  his  device 
a  stage  further  by  adding  a  platform  to  catch 
the  grain  until  sufficient  had  been  collected 
to  form  a  sheaf,  when  it  was  swept  off  by  a 
rake.  The  inventor  received  special  recogni- 
tion at  the  Great  Exhibition  held  in  London 
in  1851,  as  one  who  had  done  signal  services 
to  the  cause  of  agriculture.  Yet  farmers, 
notoriously  conservative  as  they  are,  looked 
askance  at  the  invention,  although  its  effi- 
ciency was  demonstrated  under  their  very 
eyes.  As  they  could  not  understand  it  fully, 
and  it  was  so  far  in  advance  of  anv  mechanism 


A   HARVEST   SCENE   IN   THE    BIG    BEND   COUNTRY,    WASHINGTON. 

The  headers  are  pushed  by  a  team  of  horses   and  deliver  the  cut  grain  direct  into  wagons. 
A  THRESHING   SCENE   IN   THE   SALT   RIVER    VALLEY,    ARIZONA. 

The  straw  and  chafif  are  blown  through  the  long  spout  seen,  on  to  a  heap. 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 


295 


to   which    they   were    accustomed,    they   sus- 
pected it  of  being  unreliable. 

But  in  due  course  the  machine  attained  a 
state  of  perfection  which  established  its  value 
beyond  dispute.  The  self-bind- 
ing apparatus,  which  passes 
twine  round  the  sheaf,  knots 
it,  and  cuts  it  off,  was  added,  so  doing  away 
with  the  labour  of  the  three  or  four  men  who 


The  Self, 
binder. 


open  end  of  the  machine.  Pieces  of  straw 
and  any  stray  grains,  seeds,  or  husks  that 
escape  the  drums  fall  through  the  shakers  on 
to  sieves,  and  by  them  are  fed  to  the  blowers, 
which  blow  away  the  short  straws.  The  grain, 
husks,  and  dust  are  then  subjected  to  further 
winno wings,  and  finally  the  grain  and  seeds 
only  remain  to  be  dealt  with.  A  series  of 
sieves  effects  the  separation,  allowing  the  seeds 


1 


-- ^ 


COMBINED   HARVESTER    AND   THRESHER    AT    WORK   IN    THE    BIG    BEND    COUNTRY,    WASHINGTON. 
The  sacks  seen  in  the  foreground  have  been  filled  with  grain  and  dropped  by  the  machine. 


formerly  had  followed  a  reaper  to  tie  up  the 
grain  which  it  discharged.  From  that  time 
onward  the  importance  of  the  reaping-machine 
has  increased.  Vast  numbers  of  machines  are 
manufactured  annually  for  use  in  all  parts 
of  the  world. 

What  the  self-binder  is  to  the  reaping-hook, 
the  modern  threshing-machine  is  to  the  old- 
fashioned  flail.  The  corn,  fed  in  through  an 
opening  in  the  top,  is  caught 
by  a  fluted  drum  and  rubbed 
between  it  and  a  breastwork, 
which  knocks  out  most  of  the -grain,  and  flings 
the  straw  forward  on  to  a  series  of  shakers. 
These    move   the   straw    slowly   towards    the 


The  Thresh - 
insf-machine. 


and  very  small  grains  to  pass,  but  retaining 
the  good  grain.  The  last  reaches  an  elevator, 
which,  by  means  of  an  endless  band  of  cups, 
whisks  it  up  to  a  hopper.  From  the  hopper 
it  falls  on  to  another  series  of  screens  for  a 
final  winnowing,  and  thence  passes  into  an 
inclined  rotating  cylindrical  screen.  This 
screen  is  divided  into  two  sections.  The  first 
section  has  its  wires  set  close  together.  The 
smallest  grain,  the  "  thirds,"  escape  through  it 
into  a  hopper  and  so  to  a  sack.  The  "  seconds  " 
are  freed  by  a  second  section,  and  the  "  firsts  " 
drop  out  of  the  end  of  the  screen.  From 
start  to  finish  the  processes  are  purely  auto- 
matic. 


^~ 

B      ^ 

■  ^^H 

A  HUGE  HEADER  AND  LOCOMOTIVE. 

This  outfit  reaps  and  threshes  the  grain  from  ten  acres  in  an  liour. 
A   STEAM   HEADER    MAKING   READY. 

This  view  shows  some  of  the  gearing  which  drives  the  wheels,  and  also  the  large  water  tank  used  for  supplying  the  boiler. 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERlNiJ. 


297 


Ono  might  expect  that  farmers  would  be 
satisfied  with  reaping  and  threshing  machines 
as  separate  units.  Both  are  wonderful  savers 
of  time  and  labour.  But  the 
development  of  new  countries 


Mammoth 
Reapers. 


and  the  occurrence  of  special 
conditions  have  given  rise  to  fresh  needs.  In 
California,  and  in  some  parts  of  Canada,  where 
vast  areas  are  devoted  to  wheat,  and  where 
the  weather  conditions  are  very  reliable,  the 
crops  can  be  left  standing  until  so  ripe  as  to 
allow  threshing  to  follow  immediately  after 
reaping.  Tliere  is  no  need  for  the  grain  to 
mature  in  the  shock  or  stack.  Advantage  has 
been  taken  of  this.  Inventors  gave  their 
attention  to  producing  a  type  of  machine 
which  should  thresh  and  sack  as  well  as  reap 
the  crops  as  it  travels.  The  machines  were 
of  great  size,  requiring  twenty  or  more  horses 
to  draw  them  ;  and  their  dimensions  increased 
until  it  became  common  to  encounter  a 
''  header  " — these  machines  cut  the  ears  off 
with  as  little  straw  as  possible — having  from 
thirty  to  forty  mules  harnessed  to  it.  In  fact, 
there  are  instances  on  record  of  as  many  as 
fifty  mules  being  hitched  to  a  single  harvester. 

Finally,  animal  muscular  strength  was  re- 
placed by  steam.  An  ingenious  inventor 
devised  a  monster  steam  engine  which  could 
do  the  work  of  a  hundred  mules, 
and  move  a  harvester  of  truly  mam- 
moth dimensions.  One  of  the  largest 
machines  can  cut  a  swathe  52  feet 
wide,  and  cover  100  acres  in  a  ten- 
hour  working  day.  (The  record  at 
present  stands  at  130  acres.)  All 
the  wheat  growing  on  this  enormous 
area  is  cut,  threshed,  and  sacked  by 
the  header  in  one  continuous  opera- 
tion, which  means  that  from  1,400 
to  1,800  sacks  of  wheat  are  made 
ready  for  market  by  a  single  mech- 
anism between  sunrise  and  sunset. 

Tlie  illustrations  which  we  repro- 
duce   of    one  of    these    giants   may 


inspire  the  reader  with  a  desire  for  further 
details.  The  machinery  of  the  tractor  is 
supported  on  thi'ee  great 
wheels,    having    tyres    five   or 


The  Loco- 
motives used. 


six  feet  in  width,  so  wide  as  to 
give  the  wheels  the  appearance  of  enormous 
steel  banels.  The  driving-wheels  are  operated 
through  huge  chains,  with  links  of  steel  a 
foot  long,  and  an  inch  thick,  each  tested  to 
withstand  a  pull  of  250  tons. 

The  other  parts  are  proportionately  huge 
and  strongly  made.  A  tractor  consumes  six 
tons  of  coal  and  fifty  hogsheads  of  water  per 
day.  In  spite  of  its  bulk  it  is  easily  handled. 
One  man  steers  ;  a  second  stokes  the  fur- 
nace ;  a  third  operates  the  levers  of  the 
cutting-machine  ;  and  a  fourth  ties  the  mouths 
of  the  bags  before  they  drop  to  the  ground, 
to  be  picked  up  by  the  wagons  drawn  by 
other  tractors,  which  carry  them  away  to  the 
railway.  Following  the  grain  to  the  end  of 
the  chapter,  we  see  it  raised  by  machinery 
into  the  bins  of  an  elevator,  automatically 
sorted,  and  weighed.  Machinery  delivers  it  to 
and  removes  it  from  a  vessel  that  bears  it 
across  the  ocean  ;  machinery  grinds  it  into 
flour,  and  mixes  it  with  water  and  yeast  for 
the  baker's  oven.  It  is  not  going  beyond  the 
truth  to  sav  that  much  of  the  wheat  which 


C.P.l 


(Photo,  by  rovrtesy  of  the  Canadian  Government.) 


298 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


A   GREAT   25-FURROW   GANG   PLOUGH,    PULLED    BY    A    STEAM    TRACTOR,    AT    WORK   ON    A    BIG    CALIFORNIAN 

RANCHE. 


we  consume  has  never  been  touched  by  human 
hand  until  it  comes  from  the  oven  as  bread 
or  pastry. 

To  revert  for  a  moment  to  the  great  steam 
tractors    described    above.     These    find    em- 
ployment  in   operations   other  than  reaping. 
The    American    farmer    works 
Tractors  for    j^.^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^  -^  -^  ^^.^^^^1.    So, 
Ploughing, 

when  the  sowmg  season  comes, 

he  hitches  to  his  tractor  a  twenty-five-share 
plough  ;  behind  that  in  succession  a  number 
of  harrows,  a  drill  and  seeder,  and  other 
harrows.  In  this  way  the  land  is  ploughed, 
pulverised,  and  sown  as  fast  as  the  machine 
can  travel.  We  can  hardly  expect  to  see 
labour-saving  developed  further,  so  far  as 
agricultural  operations  are  concerned. 

The  direct  ploughing  system,  in  which  the 
engine  travels  ahead  of  the  plough  over  the 
land  to  be  cultivated,  is  not  practicable  in 
this  country  with  very  heavy  locomotives,  the 
cable    system    being  found  much  more  effec- 


Agricultural 
Motors. 


tive.  This  does  not  signify,  however,  that 
direct  cultivation  by  power  is  not  practised, 
as  in  recent  years  the  light  pet- 
rol or  paraffin  internal  combus- 
tion tractor  has  obtained  recog- 
nition among  farmers  for  ploughing,  reap- 
ing, threshing,  chaff-cutting,  etc.  The  weight 
of  the  agricultural  motor  being  under  two  tons 
and  distributed  over  broad  wheels,  the  pres- 
sure per  square  inch  on  the  ground  at  points 
of  contact  is  actually  less  than  that  of  a 
horse's  hoof.  A  two,  three,  or  four-furrow 
plough,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
is  hauled  by  the  motor,  which  is  able  to  turn 
in  a  small  circle,  and  so  is  as  handy  on  the 
headlands  as  a  team  of  horses.  One  form  of 
motor  plough  has  a  double  set  of  shares, 
arranged  on  the  same  principle  as  the  cable- 
hauled  balance  plough,  so  that  the  direction 
may  be  reversed  without  turning  round  the 
machine.  This  plough  is  furnished  with  a 
light  anchored  cable  which  may  be  hauled  on 


AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERING. 


299 


IVEL  AGRICULTURAL   MOTOR  DRAWING  WAGON. 

automatically  if  the  driving  wheels  fail 
to  bite,  and  so  be  made  to  take  part  of 
the  ploughing  strain.  Under  favourable 
conditions  a  motor  plough  can  turn  over 
from  three-quarters  of  an  acre  to  one 
acre  of  ground  per  hour,  at  a  cost  of 
about  four  shillings  an  acre  for  fuel, 
oil,  wages,  and  wear  and  tear  of 
machinery. 

The  Ivel  agricultural  motor  (see  illus- 
trations) will  draw  two  self-binders, 
each  cutting  a  6-foot  swathe,  and  reap 
four  acres  in  an  hour.  The  angles  of 
the  standing  crop  are  rounded  off 
that  the  motor  may  travel  continuously 
round    and     round    the     field.       If    occasion 


demands,  the  work  can  be  carried  on  by 
night  with  the  assistance  of  powerful  head- 
lights. By  taking  full  advantage  of  fine 
weather  in  this  way,  the  farmer  improves  his 
chances  of  getting  in  his  crops  in  good  order. 
In  outlying  districts,  remote  from  a  railway, 
the  oil  motor  has  a  decided  advantage  over 
steam,  in  that  its  fuel  can  be  carried  to  the 
scene  of  operations  at  a  much  lower  cost, 
'i'he  farmer  finds  a  machine  of  this  kind  in- 
valuable. Besides  ploughing  and  reaping  his 
land  it  will  thresh  and  grind  the  grain,  cut 


so 


IVEL   AGRICULTURAL   MOTOR   DRAWING   SELF-BINDER. 

the  chaff,  pump  water,  generate  electricity, 
saw  wood,  and  serve  as  a  team  of  horses  for 
hauling  loads  from  place  to  place. 


[Note. — Thanks  are  due  for  assistance  given  by  Messrs.  John  Foivler  and  Co., 

and  by  Ivel  Agricultural  Motors,  Ltd.,  in  connection  with  the 

illustration  of  this  article.] 


THE    Ell. Eil WAND    SJ Alios,    JU.NUl'UAL,     UAli^tvAt. 


[I'huLu,  by  coutiai/  oj  Swisa  Ftdtrul  liiiilwai/d.) 


TWO    REMARKABLE 
ALPINE    MOUNTAIN    RAILWAYS. 


M 


The  Fell 
Railway. 


ANY  probably  have  forgotten,  and 
many  more  have  never  heard  of, 
the  first  railway  built  over  the  Alps 
— the  Fell  Railway — which  forty  years  ago 
climbed  the  pass  of  the  Mont 
Cenis,  and  for  three  years  car- 
ried the  international  traffic 
between  France  and  Italy,  and  also  the  Indian 
mail,  as  regularly  and  safely  as  any  of  its 
jjresent-day  successors. 

This  little  line,  with  its  3  feet  7  inch  gauge, 
was  the  pioneer  of  Alpine  railways  ;  and  that 
its  name  is  little  remembered  may  be  ascribed 
to  the  fact  that  it  ceased  to  run  in  1871,  the 
year  in  which  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  was 
opened. 

Soon  after  the  first  appearance  of  the  steam 
locomotive  in  France,  engineers  began  to  give 


attention  to  the  apparently  impossible  task 
of  linking  up  the  railways  on  the  north  with 
those  on  the  south  side  of  the 

Alps.      The     different    Alpine    Schemes  for 
,     ,.    ,  »  „        a  Line  over 

passes  were  studied  caretuUy,         .      . . 

and  in  1840  it  was  decided 
to  construct  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  line.  As 
we  have  noticed  on  a  previous  page  (vol.  iii., 
p.  149),  actual  work  on  the  line  did  not  com- 
mence until  1857,  and  at  that  time  it  was 
expected  that  twenty-five  years  might  be 
consumed  in  boring  the  tunnel.  So  urgently 
was  the  railway  communication  needed  that 
an  English  engineer,  Mr.  J.  B.  Fell,  conceived 
the  idea  of  carrying  a  railway  over  the  moun- 
tain, for  dealing  with  the  traffic  until  the 
tunnel  should  be  finished — or,  if  the  tunnel 
proved  impracticable,  to  serve  as  a  permanent 


302 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


The  Mont 
Cenis  Road. 


line  between  France  and  Italy.  The  line  was 
to  follow,  more  or  less  closely,  the  route  of 
the  existing  road,  which  has  a 
historic  interest  as  having  been 
completed  by  the  great  Napo- 
leon, for  military  purposes,  in  the  years  1800 
to  1810,  during  his  occupation  of  Piedmont. 
To  reach  the  summit  elevation  of  7,000  feet, 
steep  inclines,  with  a  maximum  gradient  of 
1  in  10,  would  be  needed  ;  and  as  ordinary 
locomotives,  depending  for  their  adhesion  on 
the  weight  carried  by  the  driving  wheels, 
would  not  be  able  to  climb  inclines  of 
such  steepness,  Mr.  Fell  proposed  to  over- 
come the  difficulty  by  using  a  system  of  his 
own  invention.  As  the  system  is  in  use  on 
the  Snaefell  Railway,*  Isle  of  Man,  and  on  a 
railway  in  New  Zealand,  it  may  be  as  well  to 
describe  it  somewhat  fully,  using  the  present 
tense. 

_n .    m. 


The  Fell 
System. 


DIAGRAM    SHOWING    THE    FELL    CENTRE-RAIL    TRACK 
AND    GRIPPING    WHEELS. 

The  permanent  way  consists  of  ordinary 
cross-sleepers,  carrying  two  track  rails,  be- 
tween and  equidistant  from  which  is  a  double- 
headed  centre  rail,  laid  on  its 
side  and  mounted  eight  inches 
higher  than  the  ordinary  rails, 
on  steel  chairs  bolted  securely  to  the  sleepers. 
The  locomotives  are  provided  with  four 
cylinders,  one  pair  to  work  the  vertical  or 
carrying  wheels,  the  other  to  drive  two  or 
more  pairs  of  horizontal  wheels,  which,  by 
means  of  a  screw-gear,  can  be  made  to  grip 
the  centre  rail  on  both  sides  with  the  force 
required  by  the  gradient  travelled  over.  Car- 
riages   are   provided  with   horizontal   flanged 

*  In  this  case  the  system  is  not  used  for  ha.uling  purposes, 
but  for  safety. 


Safety  Wheels. 


A    RADIAL    FELL    TANK    ENGINE.       BUILT    BY 
MESSRS.    NEILSON    AND    CO.,    GLASGOW. 

wheels,  having  the  flanges  under  the  rails, 
which  the  wheels  therefore  cannot  mount — an 
arrangement  which,  as  events 
have  proved,  makes  it  prac- 
tically impossible  for  locomotives  or  rolling 
stock  to  leave  the  track  under  conditions  that, 
but  for  such  a  safeguard,  would  have  dis- 
astrous results.  Also  it  has  been  found  in- 
practice  that  where  the  centre  rail  is  laid  there 
is  less  friction,  and  consequently  less  wear 
and  tear,  on  curves,  as  the  horizontal  wheels 
take  the  pressure  due  to  centrifugal  force  and 
prevent  the  flanges  of  the  carrying  wheels 
gi'inding  against  the  outer  rail. 

For  control  purposes  the  ordinary  brakes  are 
supplemented  on  every  vehicle  by  centre-rail 
brakes,  worked  by  hand  or  by  power.  Two 
powerful  steel  jaws  press  cast- 
iron  brake  blocks  against  the 
rail  so  tightly  that,  if  proper  care  be  exercised, 
a  train  cannot  possibly  get  out  of  control. 

A  locomotive  incorporating  the  principles 
sketched  above  was  built  at  Birkenhead,  and 
tested  on  the  High  Peak  Railway,  Derbyshire, 
with  results  so  encouraging  as  to  justify  ap- 
plication being  made  shortly  afterwards  to 
the  French  and  Italian  Grovernments  for  con- 
cessions to  build  the  Mont  Cenis  Summit 
Railway. 

The  two  Governments  sanctioned  the  con- 
struction of  the  line  on  the  condition  that  a 
trial  of  the  system  should  be  made  on  the 


Brakes. 


TWO    REMARKABLE    ALPINE    MOUNTAIN    RAILWAYS.     303 


granted  for 
the  Line. 


mountain  itself  during  the  winter  months,  to 

test,  with    the  greatest  possible  severity,  the 

capabilities  of   such  a  railway, 

A  trial  line,    U 
Concessions     ^^-^^^^   i^^^g^  ^^^ 

therefore  con- 
structed on  the 
zigzag  known  as  Les  Echelles, 
above  Lanslebourg  (see  map), 
6,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
steepest  gradient  was  1  in  12  ; 
the  sharpest  curve  had  a  radius 
of  only  2  chains,  or  44  yards. 
The  experiments,  carried  out 
during  the  summer  as  well  as 
the  winter,  were  so  successful  that  in  November 
of  the  same  year  (1865)  the  French  Govern- 
ment granted  the  concession  from  St.  Miche. 
to  the  Italian  frontier.  The  Italian  concession 
was  obtained  in  the  month  following. 

The  work  of  construction  began  in  the 
spring  of  1866.  Leaving  St.  Michel,  the  line 
followed  the  valley  of  the  Arc,  utilizing  the 
public  road  as  far  as  possible,  while  allowing 


a  sufficient   width    for   the   vehicular  traffic. 
The  valley  was  so  narrow   that   the  stream, 


S.MiCHn 

'3^. 


MAP    SHOWING    THE    COURSE    OF    THE    FELL    MOINTAIN     RAILWAY 
FROM    ST.    MICHEL    TO    SUSA. 


when  swollen  by  rain  or  snow-water,  some- 
times carried  away  the  track.  From  the  al- 
most perpendicular  mountain-sides  loose  rock 
would  occasionally  be  detached 
by  the  action  of  frost  or  water, 
and  crash  down,  bringing  with 
it  tons  of  debris.  As  a  protection  against 
such  destructive  forces,  screen-walls  of  masonry 
were  built  against  the  mountain-side. 

At  Modane  the  line  deviated 
from  the  road,  as  the  valley 
widened,  and  ascended  by  a 
steep      incline 


Construction 
begun. 


Engineering 
Difficulties. 


THE    MONT   CENIS    ROAD    AT    LES    ECHELLES,    ON    THE    FRENCH    SIDE 

OF    THE    MOUNTAIN. 

The  Fell  Railway  followed  this  road  for  most  of  the  distance. 


to  a  higher 
reach  of  the 
river.  Thence  to  Lanslebourg, 
the  little  frontier  town  which 
was  made  the  headquarters  for 
the  upper  section  of  the  line, 
no  great  engineering  difficul- 
ties presented  themselves.  But 
beyond  Lanslebourg  had  to  be 
surmounted  the  great  Echelle, 
which,  with  its  numerous  twists 
and  turns,  made  it  difficult  to 
lay  out  the  line.  The  road  was 
narrow,  and  the  authorities  re- 
quired the  rails  to  be  placed 
on  the  outer  or  precipice  side 
for  the  greater  safety  of  the 


304 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THE  ITALIAN  FLAG  PRESENTED  TO  MR.  J.  B.  FELL 
ON  THE  OCCASION  OP  THE  FIRST  TRAIN  CROSSING 
THE    MOUNTAIN,    AUGUST    26,    1867. 

The  words,  translated,  are  :  "  John  Fell,  who,  by  the  power 
of  his  genius,  was  the  first  to  overcome  the  Alpine  passes 
with  the  locomotive." 

vehicular  traffic.  As  the  curves  at  the  bends 
were  too  sharp  to  allow  the  line  to  follow 
them,  curved  tunnels  of  two  chains  radius 
had  to  be  driven  to  enable  the  track  to  step 
from  one  bend  of  the  road  to  another.  The 
road  could  not  be  widened,  because  one  leg 
of  a  bend  was  almost  vertically  above  the 
other  ;  consequently  the  permanent  way  ran 
in  places  along  the  very  edge  of  the  precipice, 
and  the  sides  of  the  cars  actually  hung  over 
space,  so  that  passengers  could  look  down 
vertically  into  the  valley  1,000  feet  below. 
No  wonder  that  some  of  the  more  nervous 
travellers  closed  their  eyes  as  the  train  sped 
swiftly  from  curve  to  curve,  swaying  omin- 
ously now  to  the  right,  now  to  the  left. 

After  crossing  the  frontier  the  line  de- 
scended to  the  Italian  zigzag,  which  it  did 
not  follow,  as  a  disused  road  was  found  to 
give  better  gradients,  though  a  route  more 
subject  to  avalanches.  From  the  zigzag  to 
La  Grande  Croix  the  track  was  very  exposed 
to  storms,  and  if  not  so  snowbound  as  the 
northern  side,  was  equally  difficult  to  work  in 
winter. 


The  Line 
completed. 


At  Susa,  50  miles  from  St.  Michel,  was  met 
the  Haute  Italic  Railway,  which  runs  down 
the  valley  of  the  Dora  Riparia  and  terminates 
at  Turin. 

By  the  end  of  1866  good  progress  had  been 
made  with  the  works  ;  but,  unfortunately, 
the  ensuing  winter  was  very  severe.  Work 
was  extremely  difficult,  the 
cold  even  on  the  lower  parts 
of  the  line  being  so  intense 
that  earth-cuttings  and  the  very  holes  for 
post  and  rail  fencing  had  to  be  blasted.  Next 
spring  matters  became  still  worse.  Floods,  the 
most  serious  that  had  occurred  for  more  than 
two  centuries,  carried  away  over  three  kilo- 
metres of  newly  constructed  line  between  St. 
Michel  and  Termignon,  destroyed  three  bridges, 
and  stopped  work  entirely  on  the  French  side. 
But  despite  all  these  misfortunes  the  last  rail 
was  laid  on  August  15,  1867,  and  the  first 
train  to  cross  the  Alps  ran  from  St.  Michel 
to  Susa  on  the  26tli  of  the  same  month,  so 
establishing  a  record  in  mountain  engineering. 

Difficulties  were  not  at  an  end,  however, 
for  the  French-built  locomotives  proved  de- 
fective. The  necessary  alterations  delayed 
the  formal  opening  of  the  rail- 


Its  Short  but 
Useful  Life. 


way  till  the  next  year,  when 
— on  June  15 — the  ceremony 
was  performed  amidst  great  rejoicings.  As 
already  noticed,  the  railway  served  as  the 
chief  artery  of  east-bound  traffic  for  the  fol- 
lowing three  years,  carrying  passengers,  goods, 
and  mails  with  great  regularity,  considering 
the  altitude  of  the  line  and  the  consequent 
climatic  difficulties  to  be  overcome.  The 
crossing  of  the  mountain  was  performed  in 
four  and  a  half  to  five  hours,  including  stop- 
pages for  customs,  etc.,  and  on  several  occa- 
sions time  lost  by  the  Indian  mail  between 
Calais  and  St.  Michel  was  made  up  on  the 
summit  railway.  The  safety  of  the  centre 
rail  system  is  attested  sufficiently  by  the  fact 
that  not  one  of  the  150,000  passengers  who 
used   this   railway  received   the   slightest  in- 


TWO    REMARKABLE    ALPINE    MOUNTAIN    RAILWAYS.     305 


AM     y^,t**l//      Cti/jji-ft^ 


krmk  ?MI  Mftn  w  diM  M  <  OMo  «»'. 


jury.  Among 
the  passengers 
was  our  pres- 
ent King,  who 
wrote  of  the 
line  that  it 
seemed  to  be 
tlie  safest  that 
he  had  ever 
travelled 
upon. 

Naturally,  at 
such  an  eleva- 


vented  the  tunnel  scheme  maturing.  Had  the 
summit  line  become  a  permanent  one  (which 
could  have  been  done  at  a  further  cost  of 
about  £500,000),  and  improved  in  the  matter 
of  widening  the  gauge,  reducing  curves,  using 
more  powerful  locomotives,  and  modernizing 
the  working,  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 
summit  line  would  have  been  capable  of 
maintaining  as  good  and  efficient  a  means 
of  communication  as  is  afforded  by  the 
existing  tunnel.  The  cost  of  working  the 
line  would  naturally  have  been  greater,  but 
if     this     cost    were     capitalized,     the     total 


REPRODUCTION  OF  A  COMIC 
SKETCH  ISSUED  WHILE  THE 
FELL  RAILWAY  WAS  IN  OPERA- 
TION. 

Underneath  are  the  words,  "The 
Fell  Railway  (train)  arrives  at  the 
summit  of  the  Mont  Cenis  without 
spilling  any  of  its  passengers." 

tion  provision  had  to  be  made 
against  interruption  by  snow, 
and  this  was  effected  by  means 
of  covered  ways  of  wood  and 
corrugated  iron,  or,  where  there 
was  danger  of  avalanches,  by 
artificial  masonry  tunnels  built 
against  the  side  of  the  moun- 
tain. Altogether  the  line  was 
thus  protected  for  a  distance  of 
about  nine  miles. 

The  line  ceased  running,  in 
accordance  with  a  stipulation 
in   the   concessions,    when    the 

great  tunnel  was 
Economy  of  j    •      o 

..     c.     /         opened  m  Sep- 
the  System.       ^  ^ 

tember      1871  ; 

but  not  until  it  had  so  fully 
justified  itself  as  to  make  many 
people  in  Italy  think  that,  had 
Fell's  system  been  developed 
sooner,  it  would,  on  account 
of  its  far  smaller  constructional 
and  working   costs,   have   pre- 

(1,40S) 


VIEW  OF  THE  MONCH  FROM  THE  ENTRANCE  OF  THE  SHORT  TUNNEL 
BETWEEN  SCHEIDEGO  AND  EIOERGLETSCHER  STATION,  JUNGFRAU 
RAILWAY. 

20  VOL.   III. 


306 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


to  a  Moun- 
tain Peak. 


THE    JUNGFRAU    RAILWAY    APPROACHING    THE    EIGER. 

capital  for  the  summit  line  would  be  but 
£1,650,000,  as  against  £5,300,000  for  the 
tunnel. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  here  a  present- 
day  project  for  making  a  Fell-system  railway 
over  the  Monginevra  Pass,  from  Oulx  to 
Brian9on,  to  place  Turin  and 
all  the  northern  part  of  Italy 
in  direct  communication  with 
the  south  and  east  of  France 
and  with  the  port  of  Marseilles. 
This  important  object  will  be  effected  by 
a  mountain  railway  a  little  more  than  25 
miles  long,  at  a  cost  of  about  £660,000.  The 
summit-level  of  the  pass  is  6,061  feet  above 


Project  for 

another  Pass 

Surface 

Railway. 


the  sea,  and  if  the  extra  cost  of 
working  over  this  altitude,  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  a  tunnel,  be 
capitalized  and  added  to  the  cost 
of  construction,  the  outlay  will  still 
be  less  than  one-half  that  of  a 
tunnel  railway.  The  passage  of 
the  mountain  will  be  made  in  less 
than  two  hours,  and  as  there  will 
be  no  difficulty  in  running  as  many 
trains  upon  this  as  on  the  existing 
Mont  Cenis  line,  the  traffic-carrying 
capacity  of  the  Monginevra  will  be 
equal  to  that  of  Mont  Cenis. 

THE    JUNGFRAU  RAILWAY. 

We  now  pass  over  some  forty 
years  to  the  construction  of  the 
latest  addition  to  the  many  peak- 
climbing  Swiss  rack 
railways  -  that  ^  Railway 
which  ascends  from 
Kleine  Scheidegg 
on  the  Lauterbrunnen-Grindelwald 
or  Wengeralp  track  to  Eismeer 
station,  cut  in  the  rock  of  the 
western  face  of  the  Eiger,  at  an 
elevation  of  10,368  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Ultimately  the  rails  will  be 
carried  within  300  feet  of  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Jungfrau,  the  most  beautiful  of 
the  Swiss  mountains,  and  a  lift  will  transfer 
travellers  to  the  topmost  point  of  the  peak 
to  enjoy  what  has  been  pronounced  the  finest 
view  in  the  world. 

Three  schemes  for  leading  a  rack  railway  to 
a  spot  still  accessible  only  to  the  practised 
mountaineer  were  first  mooted  in  1890,  and 
were  all  shelved  by  the  Swiss 
Legislature.  Three  years  later 
M.  Adolph  Guyer-Zeller,  a  Zurich  manu- 
facturer, propounded  a  plan  for  making  use 
of  the  recently  opened  Wengeralp  Railway, 
referred  to  above,  as  a  means  of  approach, 
and  for  constructing  from  Scheidegg  a  track 


The  Scheme. 


TWO    REMARKABLE    ALPINE    MOUNTAIN    RAILWAYS.     307 


LAUTER-\ 
-BRUNNEN  V 


on  a  maximum  gradient  of  1  in 
4  along  the  sides  of  the  Eiger, 
tlirough  the  Jungfraujoch,  and 
round  and  up  the  Jungfrau, 
stations  to  be  made  on  the  south 
and  north  sides  of  the  mountain 
chain  to  afford  a  number  of 
different  view-points.  The  sta- 
tions, constructed  and  projected, 
are  seven  in  number,  as  follows  : 
Kleine  Scheidegg  (6,770),  Eiger- 
gletscher  (7,020),  Rothstock 
(8,300),  Eigerwand  (9,404),  Eis- 
meer  (10,368),  Jungfraujoch 
(11,139),  and  Jungfrau  (13,664). 
The  figures  in  parentheses  signify 
their  respective  heights  above 
sea-level. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  line  is 
that,  when  complete,  only  about 
the  first   IJ  out  of  the  7^^  miles 

will     be    in    the 
A  Railway  ^^j  ^^^  ^^^^ 

in  Tunnel. 

being   in  tunnel. 

The  tunnel  is  12  feet  2  inches 
wide  and  14  feet  3  inches  high,  and  has  a 
semicircular  roof.  The  rock  through  which  it 
passes  is  for  the  most  part  a  very  hard  lime- 
stone requiring  no  lining,  so  that  the  difficulty 
of  boring  was  offset  by  the  fact  that,  a  mini- 
mum of  boring  need  be  done.  By  keeping 
the  railway  under  cover,  entire  protection  was 
aft'orded  against  avalanches,  and  the  miners 
were  enabled  to  work  all  through  the  winter 
season  when  tourist  traffic  had  ceased.  This 
system  also  made  it  possible  to  complete  the 
railway  in  instalments,  and  to  utilize  the 
receipts  from  opened  sections  to  cover  partly 
the  cost  of  those  being  bored. 

The  heavy  gradient  and  a  deficiency  of 
water  prevented  the  use  of  the  Brandt  hy- 
draulic drill.  The  less  effec- 
tive but  more  handy  Siemens 
and  Halske  electric  drills,  making  about  400 
blows    a    minute,    have    been    employed    ex- 


RINDEL- 
-WALO 


KLEINE  SHCIOEC^ 

EIGERWAND 


EIGERGLETSCHER 


.v'^" 


u\lli I '  ,****^UNOFRAUJ 0 C H 


■^ 


((>,  JUNGFRAU 


Electric  Drills. 


MAP    SHOWING    THE    WENGERALP    AND    JUNGFRAU    RAILWAYS. 

The  completed  portion  of  the  latter's  tunnel  is  indicated  by  heavy  broken  lines : 
the  uncompleted  sections  above  Eismeer  by  light  broken  lines. 


clusively.  The  current  for  driving  them  is 
derived  from  the  power-house  below  Lauter- 
brunnen,  where  the  White  Liitschine  River 
is  harnessed  to  a  number  of  turbines,  which 
also  supplies  part  (2,650  horse-power)  of  the 
motive  power  for  the  electric  locomotives 
operating  the  line.* 

The  surveying  of  the  course  was  necessarily 
very  difficult,  and  occupied  nearly  five  years. 
While  it  was  in  progress  a  start  was  made  at 
Little  Scheidegg  on  the  track  construction, 
and  in  August  1899  the  Scheidegg-Rothstock 
section  was  opened.  In  1903  tourists  could 
travel  up  to  the  Eigerwand  station  ;  in  1905 
to  Eismeer.  It  is  anticipated  that  in  1911 
the  Jungfrau  peak  itself  will  be  reached. 

The  rack  system  used  here  is  that  invented 
by  M.  Emile  Strub.     The  electric  current  con- 


*  A   second  power-station  on   the 
velops  10,000  horse- power. 


Black    Liitschine    d&- 


THE    ENTRANCE    TO    ONE    OF    THE    TUNNELS. 
A    GROUP    OF    MINERS. 


TWO    REMARKABLE    ALPINE    MOUNTAIN    RAILWAYS.     309 


ductor    runs    overhead    on    the    arcli    of    the 

tunnel,  and  is  conveyed  to  a  locomotive  by 

four    trolley    arms,    two    per 

The  Track      pji^se.      Each  locomotive  has 
and  the        ^         ,  ^^    , 
Locomotives.   ^'''°    ^^^   horse-power  motors. 
Whether     ascending     or     de- 
scending the   speed  is   limited   by   automatic 
brakes  to   5J  miles  an  hour — not  merely   to 


course  of  the  journey.  Soon  after  leaving 
Scheidegg  the  train  enters  a  short  tunnel, 
during  the  transit  of  which  the 
electric  lights  are  turned  on 
automatically.  From  the  upper 
end  of  this  tunnel  to  the  Eiger- 
gletscher  station  the  open  sky  is  overhead, 
and  a  splendid  scene  delights  the  eyes  of  the 


Eiger- 
jfletscher 
Station. 


EIGERGLETSCHER    STATION.       THE    SNOW-CAPPED    JUNGFRAU    IN    THE    BACKGROUND. 


avoid  accidents,  but  because  a  too  rapid  change 
of  elevation  might  affect  seriously  the  health 
of  the  passengers.  Were  the  main  current  to 
fail,  these  brakes  would  not  become  inopera- 
tive, because  current  for  working  the  brakes 
is  generated  by  the  weight  of  the  locomotive 
itself.  As  a  further  precaution  powerful  hand- 
brakes are  fitted. 

The  carriages  are  provided  with  large  glass 
windows,  which  permit  the  full  enjoyment  of 
all    views    that    present    themselves    in    the 


traveller.  At  Eigergletscher  station  there  is  a 
comfortable  restaurant  with  sheltered  balconies 
on  three  sides.  Around  this  building  have 
sprung  up  a  village  of  workmen's  houses, 
engine-houses,  and  workshops,  which  form  the 
base  of  operations  for  the  winter  work.  In 
autumn  all  the  winter's  stores  and  materials 
are  collected  at  the  Eigergletscher,  as  the 
Wengeralp  Railway  trains  cease  to  run  at  the 
end  of  October,  owing  to  the  heavy  falls  of 
snow    which    at    times   bury  even    the  posts 


310 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THE    GLACIERS    BELOW    EISMEER    STATION,    FROM    WHICH    TOURISTS    DESCEND    BY    THE    GALLERY    SEEN 

ON    THE    RIGHT. 


Terrific  Gales. 


and  conductors  of  the  electric  current  supply, 
and  break  down  the  telephone  wires.  Access 
to  the  houses  is  gained  through  deep  trenches 
which  have  to  be  cleared  after  every  snow- 
storm. Even  more  trying  to 
the  "  colonists "  is  the  John, 
or  icy  south  wind,  the  violence  of  which  is 
such  that  no  progress  can  be  made  against 
it.  On  one  occasion,  during  the  winter  of 
1905,  a  gale  blew  in  the  windows  and  one  of 
the  walls  of  the  locomotive  shed,  tore  away 
some  of  the  electric  wires,  and  removed  the 
roof  bodily.  What  became  of  the  roof  was 
never  ascertained. 

A  furlong  above  Eigergletscher  station  the 
railway  enters  the  great  tunnel,  the  loftiest 
in  the  world.  Twenty  minutes  of  steady 
climbing  brings    us   opposite   Eigerwand  sta- 


tion, which  is  reached  from  the  tunnel  plat- 
form by  a  lateral  gallery  26  feet  long  and  20 
feet    wide.     The    station   is  a 
cavern    cut   out    of   the    solid      Eigerwand 

1    •  P  111  Station. 

rock,  its  roof  supported  by  large 

pillars  left  standing  for  the  purpose.  It  has  a 
floor  area  of  2,370  square  feet.  In  the  north 
wall  are  a  number  of  large  apertures,  com- 
manding a  wide  view  of  surrounding  peaks. 
Through  one  of  these  openings  a  searchlight 
of  enormous  candle-power,  with  a  reflector 
3 1  feet  in  diameter,  at  night  projects  its 
beams,  which  are  said  to  be  clearly  visible 
at  a  distance  of  60  miles,  and  to  enable  a 
newspaper  to  be  read  in  the  streets  of 
Thun. 

Three-quarters  of ■  a  mile  beyond  the  Eiger- 
wand   is    the    Eismeer    station,    the    present 


TWO    REMARKABLE    ALPINE    MOUNTAIN    RAILWAYS.     311 


Eismeer 
Station. 


terminus,  cut  in  the  south  face  of  the  Eiger. 
Its  elevation  of  10,368  feet  makes  it  the 
highest  railway  station  in 
Europe  and  the  highest  of  all 
tunnel  stations.  Here  we  find 
a  large,  comfortable  room,  parquet  floored, 
containing  a  restaurant  and  a  post-office. 
All  heating  and  cooking  is  done  here  by 
electricity.  In  the  outer  wall  are  several 
windows  commanding  the  broad  slopes  of  the 
lower  saddle  of  the  Monch.  A  long  sloping 
gallery  cut  in  the  rock  on  a  gradient  of  3  in  10 
leads  down  to  the  glaciers  130  feet  below,  and 
gives  access  to  a  great  plain  of  eternal  snow 


which  atVords  a  safe  playground  lo  devotees 
of  winter  sports. 

When  it  is  finished,  the  Jungfrau  Railway 
will  represent  a  remarkable  engineering  achieve- 
ment. Never  before  has  a  tunnel  on  a  gradient 
of  1  in  4  been  constructed  at  such  an  altitude. 
The  engineers  were  unable  to  profit  by  previous 
experience  gained  elsewhere,  and  so  had  to 
invent  devices  to  meet  their  special  needs. 
As  the  tourist  glides  easily  up  the  steep 
acclivities  of  the  mountain,  he  might  well 
spare  a  thought  for  the  men  whose  labour 
and  perseverance  have  made  easy  for  him  the 
way  to  one  of  the  noblest  of  Alpine  peaks. 


[Note. — Thanhs   are  due  to  Mr.   O.  Noble  Fell,   A.M.Inst.C.E.,  and  to  the 

Swiss  Federal  Railways,  for  assistance  given  in  connection  with  the 

letterpress  and  illustrations  of  this  Article.] 


GREAT 
UNDERPINNING   ACHIEVEMENTS. 

BY    W.  T.   PERKINS. 


AS  a  rule  the  public  knows  little  of  the 
wonderful  achievements  of  science  in 
^  the  field  of  what  is  technically  known 
as  "  underpinning,"  a  term  signifying  the 
substitution  of  new  for  old  foundations  or  other 
supports  of  a  building.  Yet  there  is  no  class 
of  work  that  involves  more  risk,  and  it  is 
curious  to  note  that,  while  superstructures  are 
in  the  main  raised  from  the  designs  of  the 
architect,  schemes  of  underpinning  are  very 
frequently  entrusted  to  his  companion  the 
engineer.  The  author  has  selected  three  ex- 
amples of  work  of  this  kind,  each  employing 
features  of  its  own,  and  they  may  be  regarded 
as  representing  the  best  devices  of  some  of 
the  leading  modern  engineers. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  illustrations  of 
underpinning  is  undoubtedly  that  which  has 
recently  been  carried  out  so  successfully  at 
Winchester  Cathedral.  This 
venerable  structure,  situated 
at  the  bottom  of  a  hill,  near 
the  river  Itchin,  is  prominent  among  English 
cathedrals  because  of  its  great  length. 


Winchester 
Cathedral. 


Serious 
Subsidences 

of  the 
Structure. 


A  few  years  ago,  when  the  cathedral  was 
being  repaired  by  Mr.  T.  G.  Jackson,  E.A., 
the  diocesan  architect,  in  conjunction  with 
Mr.  J.  B.  Colson,  the  late  ar- 
chitect of  the  cathedral,  it  was 
discovered  that  serious  subsid- 
ences had  occurred  in  various 
parts  of  the  structure.  The 
most  alarming  falling  away,  disclosed  in  the 
presbytery,  amounted  to  nearly  2  feet  6  inches. 
Here  the  outer  walls  and  their  buttresses  were 
considerably  out  of  the  perpendicular.  The 
groined  arches  were  distorted,  and  stones  were 
occasionally  falling  from  the  roof,  indicating 
that  disintegration  had  actually  begun. 

Sinking  a  trial  pit  some  yards  away,  Mr. 
Jackson  found  under  the  clay  a  bed  of  peat 
eight  feet  thick,  resting  upon  a  solid  formation 
of  flint  and  gravel.  Another  excavation  was 
made  close  to  the  south  wall  of  the  presby- 
tery, and  at  a  depth  of  about  eight  feet  below 
the  turf  the  bottom  of  the  masonry  constitut- 
ing the  foundation  w  as  laid  bare.  It  was  then 
ascertained  that  trees  had  been  extensively  em- 


GREAT    UNDERPINNING    ACHIEVEMENTS. 


313 


ployed  in  securing  a  foundation 
for  the  cathedral.  Beech  had 
been  selected  for  the  purpose, 
and  the  trees  were  placed  side 
by  side  horizontally,  a  second 
layer  being  in  some  cases  ren- 
dered necessary  owing  to  the 
loose  character  of  the  soil. 

Although  seven  hundred  years 
had  passed  since  these  founda- 
tions were  put  in,  many  of  the 

logs  were  sound 
Their  Cause.        ,        .     x^ 

at  heart.   Decay 

had  seized  others  ;  but  even 
where  they  had  become  rotten, 
owing  to  the  water  contained 
in  the  subsoil,  the  timbers  had 
not  been  squeezed  or  flattened 
out  by  the  superincumbent 
weight. 

Underneath  the  logs  was  a 
bed  of  chalky  marl,  in  certain 
places  six  feet  thick.  The  peat 
bed  seemed  to  be  virtually  im- 
pervious to  water,  but  when 
the  trial  excavation  had  reached 
about  a  foot  from  the  bottom  of  the  deposit 
— the  thickness  ranging  from  5  feet  to  8  feet 
6  inches — a  volume  of  water  burst  upwards 
through  the  lowest  layer,  having  made  its 
way  from  the  gravel  bed  below,  into  which  it 
had  flowed  from  the  river  Itchin. 

Called  upon  to  deal  with  a  task  which 
imperilled  the  very  existence  of  the  entire 
edifice,  Mr.  Jackson  and  Mr.  Colson  wisely 
summoned  Mr.  Francis  Fox,  of  Sir  Douglas 
Fox  and  Partners,  to  their  aid.  Every  one 
could  see  that  ordinary  pumping  operations 
would  be  futile,  and  it  was  equally  certain 
that  the  use  of  compressed  air  could  not  be 
relied  upon  during  the  work  of  restoration. 
Screw  piles  and  caissons  were  regarded  as  being 
also  unsuitable,  and  resort  to  the  expedient 
of  constructing  a  slab  of  concrete  under  the 
cathedral    was    deemed    undesirable.      These 


Chalk  below^-   ' 


A  Diver 
employed. 


Diagram  to  show  the  work  that  hat!  to  be  done  by  a  diver  under  the  walls  of 
Winchester  Cathedral — namely,  to  cut  a  series  of  pits  in  the  clay  and  peat 
down  to  the  gravel  stratum,  and  fill  in  with  concrete,  bricks,  and  cement. 


different  methods  were  discussed  in  turn,  and 
all  alike  were  rejected. 

It  seemed  that  none  but  a  diver  could  do 
what  was  necessary  to  save  the  fabric  from 
disaster.  Mr.  Walker,  an  experienced  man 
employed  by  Messrs.  Siebe  and 
Gorman,  was  therefore  engaged 
to  complete  the  necessary  ex- 
cavation, which  had  to  be  made  in  water,  and 
this  he  accomplished  in  lengths  of  five  feet. 
An  illustration  shows  the  diver  in  the  act  of 
descending  into  fourteen  feet  of  water. 

Mr.  Fox,  an  expert  diver  himself,  donned 
the  dress  and  made  a  careful  examination  of 
the  solid  strata  under  the  peat  bed.  He  was 
satisfied  that  the  hard  flinty  gravel,  resting  as 
it  did  upon  the  chalk  measure,  offered  an 
excellent  material  upon  which  to  insert  the 
new  foundation  that  was  obviouslv  needed. 


314 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


The  Diver's 
Work. 


DIVER    DESCENDIMG    TO    WORK    UNDER    THE    WALLS    OF    WINCHESTER 

CATHEDRAL. 


It  will  perhups  surprise  iinany  people  to  learn 

that  each  of  the  boots  which  form  part  of  the 

diver's  equipment  weighs,  with  its  added  sole 

of  thick  lead,  no  less  than  20 
The  Diver's 
Dress. 


lbs.  On  his  chest  and  back 
are  carried  two  other  blocks 
of  lead,  40  lbs.  apiece.  The  helmet  weighs 
20  lbs.,  and  altogether  the  diver  bears  a 
load  of  nearly  200  lbs.  Yet  such  is  the  flota- 
tion power  of  water  that  he  can  descend  a 
ladder  only  by  placing  his  feet,'  not  upon  the 
rungs,  but  underneath  them,  so  that  the  tread 


may  help  him  to  pull  himself 
down  step  by  step. 

The  pits  which  the  diver  had 
to  dig  were  absolutely  dark, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
water  was  much  discoloured  by 
the  peat.  Strangely  enough, 
no  means  has  yet  been  devised 
for  introducing  artificial  light 
when  work  has  to  be  per- 
formed under  such  trying  con- 
ditions. The  underpinning  of 
Winchester  Cathedral  had 
therefore  to  proceed  not  by 
the  aid  of  sight,  but  solely  by 
a  sense  of  feeling. 

When  the  diver  removed  the 
peat  from  each  of  the  5-feet 
beds  in  which  he  had  to  carry 
on  his  opera- 
tions, he  de- 
posited      bags 

filled  with  concrete,  which  were 
lowered  from  the  scaffolding 
on  the  surface,  where  the  air 
pump  was  kept  in  constant 
motion.  Having  been  well 
trodden  down  all  round,  so  as 
to  present  a  flat  surface,  the 
bags  were  cut  open  by  the 
heavy  knife  carried  by  the 
diver,  and  another  layer  of 
concrete  bags  was  then  laid 
in  precisely  similar  fashion,  the  foundation  in 
all  consisting  of  four  courses. 

The  engineer,  wearing  the  diving  suit,  fre- 
quently inspected  the  work,  and  had  the  satis- 
faction of  knowing  that  in  each  pit  a  bed  of 
concrete  as  hard  and  solid  as  rock  was  formed. 
Water  from  the  gravel  was  thus  effectually  shut 
out,  and  the  excavation  pumped  dry.  The 
concreting  was  continued,  either  in  bulk  or  in 
block,  until  a  considerable  height  had  been 
attained.  Blocks  of  concrete  in  some  cases, 
bricks  and  cement  in  others,  were  next  carried 


GREAT    UNDEKPi^i.MAG    ACHIEVEMENTS. 


315 


up,  and  tightly  pinned  to  the  under-side  of 
the  masonry  constituting  the  original  founda- 
tions of  the  cathedral. 

Examination  proved  that  nearly  every  wall 
of  the  building  rested  upon  the  peat  men- 
tioned. The  south  transept  was  more  than 
four  feet  out  of  the  perpendicular.  The  most 
serious  fact  was  that  the  cathedral  was  sink- 
ing, due  to  the  further  compression  of  tlie 
peat  in  those  places  where  it  had  not  been 
removed.  Fillets  of  cement,  known  as  "  tell- 
tales," were  placed  across  the  cracks  that 
could  be  noticed,  so  that  immediate  warning 
might  be  given  of  any  further  movement. 
Except  in  the  parts  already  underpinned,  these 
fillets  Ayere  in  many  instances  broken  within 
three  or  four  weeks.  In  fact,  the  cathedral 
was  doomed  unless  it  w-ere  underpinned,  and 
that  without  delay. 

At  the  invitation  of  the  Royal  Institute  of 
British  Architects,  in  February  1908,  an  ex- 
tremely interesting  account  was  given  of  this 
and  kindred  underpinning  work  which  has 
been  accomplished,  and  polished  sections  cut 
from  one  of  the  beech  trees,  labelled  "  Win- 
chester Cathedral  foundation,  a.d.  1202,"  were 
exhibited.  There  are  several  other  specimens 
from  wooden  foundations  dated  1079,  as  well 
as  one  that  goes  back  as  far  as  a.d.  888. 
This  last  curious  relic  came  from  under  the 
Campanile  at  Venice,  and  was  presented  to 
its  present  owner  by  Count  Grimani,  the 
sindico,  or  mayor,  of  the  ancient  city.  All 
these  specimens  have  been  under  water  for 
centuries,  and  yet  are  as  sound  to-day  as 
when  they  were  laid  by  the  early  builders. 

Another  striking  example  of  underpinning 

is  associated  with  the  magnificent  Church  of 

Holy  Trinity  at  Hull.     One  of  the  three  largest 

churches  in  England,   it  con- 

^L  ^  .  ^^H^  y,  sists  of  an  unusually  fine  nave 
Church,  Hull.       ^     .  ,  ,  ,      .  , 

of  eight  arches  on  each  side, 

with  side  aisles,  choir  of  five  arches  and  side 
aisles,  transept,  and  a  handsome  tower  in  the 


middle,  resting  on  four  massive  piers,  each 
cruciform  in  plan.  The  total  weight  of  the 
tower  is  2,800  tons,  so  that  each  pier  is  called 
upon  to  support  700  tons.  A  period  of  more 
than  two  hundred  years  elapsed  before  the 
structure  was  completed.  The  foundations  of 
the  tower  were  laid  soon  after  1300,  the  choir 
was  finished  in  1361,  the  nave  in  1418,  and 
the  upper  portion  of  the  tower  in  1520. 

A  few  years  ago  it  became  evident  that 
the  edifice  A^as  falling.  Settlements  had  been 
detected  in  the  arches  and  piers  surrounding 
the  tower.  Considerable  cracks  resulted,  and 
from  time  to  time  portions  of  masonry  dropped. 
Matters  became  still  more  alarming  when  a 
large  corbel  supporting  the  ridge  of  the  choir 
roof  on  the  eastern  face  of  the  tower  collapsed. 
Mr.  F.  S.  Brodrick,  the  York  diocesan  surveyor, 
then  consulted  INIr.  Fox,  in  connection  with  the 
difficult  and  delicate  work  of  underpinning. 

Each  of  the  slender  piers  of  the  nave  had 
imposed  upon  it  a  dead  weight  of  75  tons, 
and  all  were  exhibiting  serious  deviation  from 
the  perpendicular,  being  as  much  as  6  or  7 
inches  out  of  plumb.  It  was,  indeed,  evident 
that  the  tower  was  sinking  slowly.  A  tradi- 
tion existed  locally  that  it  rested  on  a  timber 
raft,  and  careful  examination  proved  the  truth 
of  the  story. 

Tlie  first  step  to  save  the  church  from  the 
complete  demolition  of  which  it  was  in  immi- 
nent peril  was  to  strut  and  cross-brace  the 
arches  and  columns,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  a  /-  '  ^ 
downfall  during  the  process  of 
restoration.  In  the  next  place  the  brickwork 
in  the  spandrels  of  the  arches  adjacent  to  the 
tower  was  minutely  inspected,  and  when  the 
plaster  covering  was  taken  away  large  cracks 
indicated  that  the  brickwork  was  being  dragged 
down  by  the  pier.  A  hole  was  made  in  the 
floor  of  the  church,  and  the  timber  raft  was 
discovered.  It  rested  upon  clay  overlying  a 
deep  bed  of  silt,  and  consisted  of  horizontal* 
oak  baulks,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles. 


316 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Rot  had  reduced  the  upper  layer  of  timbers 
to  a  powder  very  similar  in  appearance  to 
coffee  grounds,  and  the  decayed  material  was 
full  of  what  is  commonly  known  as  "  eel- 
worms."  Above  these  timbers  the  masonry 
was  cracked  and  flaked  in  all  directions,  and 
it  was  apparent  that  an  alarming  state  of 
affairs  existed  in  regard  to  the  whole  of  the 
foundation. 

The  problem  of  saving  the  edifice  from  ruin 
was  hardly  capable  of  easy  solution.  Pending 
a  decision,  the  important  preliminary  step  was 
taken  of  pumping  cement  into  every  cavity 
and  crevice,  as  also  into  all  the  voids  left  by 
the  decayed  timber.  To  carry  out  this  valuable 
work  the  grouting  machine  invented  by  the 
late  Mr.  James  Greathead  (see  vol.  i.,  p.  61) 
was  brought  into  operation. 

Beneath  the  nave  columns  vertical  piles 
were  found.  It  was  supposed  that  these  had 
been  baulks  of  larch,  but  in  some  instances 
nothing  except  powder  remained.  The  form 
of  the  original  timber  was  seen  impressed  in 
the  clay,  but  the  wooden  pile  had  completely 
rotted  away,  leaving  only  a  cylindrical  hole 
with  the  dust  particles  at  the  bottom. 

At  every  step  the  utmost  caution  had  to  be 

observed,  and  the  tower  was  dealt  with  pier 

by  pier.     In  the   first  instance,   on  the  east 

and  west  sides,  quite  clear  of 

uriiiage        ^y^q   pier,    an   excavation   was 

Beams  i     ^     ,.     .   i 

Dlaced  made  24  feet  long  and  6  feet 

wide,  extending  to  the  same 
depth  as  the  old  foundation.  The  two  holes, 
dug  with  the  greatest  possible  care,  were  filled 
in  with  concrete,  in  which  what  are  techni- 
cally known  as  "  grillage  beams  "  were  placed, 
with  the  object  of  distributing  over  the  whole 
area  of  the  new  work  the  weight  to  be  borne. 
A  cavity  2  feet  6  inches  deep  and  9  inches 
wide  was  then  cut  or  "  jumped  "  through  the 
lower  masonry  of  the  pier,  and  a  steel  girder, 
measuring  24  inches  by  7  inches,  was  threaded 
through  to  rest  on  grillage  beams  in  the  con- 
crete blocks. 


Old  Pier 

Foundations 

removed. 


To  prevent  subsidence  resulting  from  the 
deflection  of  the  girder  when  it  received  its 
load,  steel  wedges  were  driven  in  under  each 
end  of  the  beam.  Initial  deflection  was  thus 
secured,  and  the  further  sinking  of  the  pier 
became  impossible.  The  girder  was  next 
built  into  position  with  blue  brick  in  cement, 
and  grouted  up.  Four  steel  beams  were  thus 
inserted  in  succession,  and  properly  secured 
in  like  fashion.  In  this  way  the  immense 
weight  of  the  pier  was  quietly  and  safely 
transferred  from  the  rotten  timbers  to  the  steel 
girders,  resting  on  the  thick  bed  of  concrete. 
This  work  was  accomplished  in  turn  under 
each  of  the  four  piers  supporting  the  tower. 

The  next  endeavour  was  to  get  rid  of  all  the 
old  cracked  masonry  and  decaying  wooden 
beams  at  the  base  of  the  piers,  some  of  the 
latter  having  been  cracked 
through.  It  was  not  deemed 
safe  to  remove  more  than  a 
fourth  of  these  materials  at 
once,  and  as  the  debris  was  cleared  away  the 
space  was  filled  up  with  concrete  in  cement. 
The  result  of  this  splendid  piece  of  labour  is 
that  to-day  each  pier  stands  upon  about  560 
square  feet  of  solid  concrete,  instead  of  upon 
the  old  defective  foundation,  which  would 
inevitably  have  involved  a  catastrophe  of  an 
appalhng  character. 

When   once   the   piers   had    been    rendered 
perfectly  safe  and  sound,  the  task  of  taking 
down  the  defective  nave  columns  began.    One 
after    another   they  were  dis- 
mantled   and     rebuilt     in    a    ^^^  Church 
strictly    vertical    position,    as 
much  of  the  old  masonry  as  remained  available 
being   utilized  ;    but  owing  to  the  transverse 
strains  that  had  been  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  columns   before  the  work  of  restoration 
commenced,  two  blocks  out  of  every  twelve 
on  an  average  had  been  broken  and  rendered 
useless.     Holy  Trinity  Church,   Hull,   was  in 
this  way  saved  in  the  nick  of  time,  to  the 
intense  delight  of  the  whole  population. 


GREAT    UNDEKPilSMNG    ACHIEVEMENTS. 


317 


Buildins:  a 
Railway  Sta- 
tion under  a 
Church. 


Only  one  railway  station  has  been  built  under 

a  church  in  this  country,  and  that  is  the  l^ank 

Station  of  the  City  and  South  London  Railway, 

the  first  electric  line  opened  in  the  Metropolis. 

The  original  Cit}"  terminus  of  this  Company 

was     at     the 

Monu  mont, 

but    when    it 

was  decided 

to  make  an 
extension  to  Moorgate  Street, 
and  thence  to  Islington  (sub- 
sequently to  King's  Cross  ^nd 
Euston),  a  station  near  the 
Bank  of  England  became  im- 
perative. Land  in  such  a 
position  has  long  been  at  what 
may  be  termed  a  fabulous 
price,  and  the  only  spot  that 
could  be  discovered  where  the 
new  station  might  be  con- 
veniently placed  was  below 
the  Church  of  St.  Mary  Wool- 
noth  of  the  Nativity,  standing 
at  the  corner  of  King  William 
Street  and  Lombard  Street. 
At  the  beginning  the  directors 
offered  to  buy  the  church  out- 
right, and  the  price  mentioned 
was  sufficient  to  have  enabled 
the  trustees  to  erect  several 
similar  edifices  elsewhere. 

The  church  was  erected  by 
Nicholas  Hawksmoor,  a  pupil 
of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and 
completed  in  1727.  Possess- 
ing characteristics  which  differ 
from  those  of  every  other 
church  in  London,  the  original  bold  and  beauti- 
ful type  it  embodies  has  always  been  admired  ; 
but  the  congregation  is  now  small.  The 
authorities,  however,  declined  the  terms  of 
the  railway  company,  who  had  no  alternative 
but  that  of  asking  their  engineers  to  con- 
struct the  station  under  the  church. 


A  bold  and  singularly  competent  group  of 
men  were  the  engineers — the  late  Sir  Ben- 
jamin Baker,  Mr.  David  Hay,  and  Mr.  Basil 
Mott — and  they  gave  the  most  positive  assur- 
ance that  the  task  could  be  completed  with- 


TIh 


ST.     MARY    WOOLXOTH — MAIN     GIRDERS     AND    CROSS    NEEDLE     GIRDERS 
,  SUPPORTING    A    GROUP    OF    COLUMNS. 

Is  of  nppfll'"   ri'ilorx  used  for  supporting  tlu>  south  wall  are  also  shown. 


oul  imperilling  the  fabric  in  the  smallest  de- 
gree. They  were  as  good  as  their  word  : 
though  the  church  was  l'\  no  mean- 
sound  in  condition  as  was  generally  supposed. 
Indeed,  one  of  the  engineers  told  the  writer 
that  he  could  have  put  his  umbrella  through 
the  roof  in  several  places.     Nevertheless,  twin 


318 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


tunnels  were  driven  for  the  rails  laid  just  above 
the  blue  clay,  at  a  depth  of  110  feet  below 
the  surface  ;  a  large  shaft  containing  five 
electric  lifts  was  carried  therefrom  ;  and  over 
all,  a  commodious  station  was  built  suffi- 
ciently close  to    the    street    level    to    be    ap- 


tings  were  removed,  while  the  carvings  and 
decorations  were  temporarily  encased  in  wood. 
Four  massive  box  girders  of  steel,  each  53 
feet  long,  were  successively  set  on  steel  legs, 
resting  on  stanchions  carried  to  suitable  foun- 
dations.     Each   pair   of   girders   was    ranged 


ST.    MARY    WOOLNOTH- 


-OUTSIDE    GIRDER    IN    POSITION    FOR    SUPPORTING    SOUTH    WALL    OF 
CHURCH,    FACING   KING    WILLIAM    STREET. 


proached  on  either  side  by  a  separate  short 
flight  of  stairs. 

The  achievement  was  truly  described  at  the 
time  as  "  a  marvel  of  engineering  skill."  It 
involved  the  removal  of  the  old  foundations 
and  the  substitution  of  others  which,  while 
providing  for  all  the  necessary  works  of  the 
railway,  were  sufficient  to  carry  the  immense 
superincumbent  weight  without  causing  the 
slightest  movement  in  the  architecture  of  the 
church  itself.  For  the  purposes  of  this  task 
the  floor,  the  organ,  and  all  the  internal  fit- 


Supportingf 

the  Column 

Bases. 


longitudinally  alongside  the  old  foundation 
piers  and  arches,  and  then  saddled  with 
smaller  steel  needle  girders  let 
crossways  through  the  com- 
mon base  of  the  four  groups 
of  columns  carrying  the  roof. 
When  the  column  bases  were  pierced  for  this 
purpose,  it  was  discovered  that  the  piers,  in- 
stead of  being  sound  Portland  stone  through 
and  through,  as  was  supposed,  were  merely 
shells  of  the  material,  varying  in  thickness 
from  6  to  9  inches,  the  interior  being  nothing 


GREAT    UNDERPINNING    AC^HIEVEMENTS. 


319 


better    than    poor    red    bricks, 
loosely  jointed  together. 

Precarious  as  such  under- 
pinning must  ever  be,  jerry 
work  of  this  kind  made  the 
task  of  the  engineers  doubly 
difficult.  In  the  circumstances 
it  became  necessary  to  place  a 
continuous  sheathing  of  steel 
joisting  under  the  area  of  each 
base,  so  as  to  tie  the  loose  mass 
of  woodwork  together,  and  dis- 
tribute equally  the  weight  upon 
the  needle  girders.  This  was 
a  very  tedious  operation,  as 
only  a  small  part  of  the  base 
could  be  dealt  with  at  one  time. 

As   soon   as   this   portion  of 
the  labour  w^as  completed,  the 
south  wall,  on  the  King  William  Street  side, 
was    pierced    at    intervals    of 

Work  under   ^^^^^  g^^  f^^^     Strong  needle 

the  South        .    -  .         .    1     •      XI 

»»/  II  girders   were    inserted    in    the 

Wall.  ® 

apertures  so  made,  one  end 
resting  on  the  solid  stone  at  the  outside, 
the  other  being  tied  down  to  one  of  the  main 
girders  supporting  the  columns.  Sufficient  of 
the  inside  of  the  wall  was  then  cut  away  to 
allow  the  girder  (built  before  the  needles  were 
fixed)  to  be  slid  into  position,  and  to  permit 
also  of  a  14-inch  blue  brick  wall  being  made, 
carrying  short  lengths  of  bearing  girders, 
which  were  wedged  tight  up  to  the  needles. 
The  object  of  this  device  was  to  reduce  the 
overhang  of  the  needles  when  the  outer  por- 
tion of  the  wall  came  to  be  cut  away,  as 
no  reliance  could  be  placed  upon  the  old 
work. 

When  the  inside  girder  was  fixed,  steel 
wedges  and  packings  were  inserted  between 
the  top  of  the  girder  and  the  needles,  the 
wedges  being  driven  up  tight  to  insure  that 
the  whole  of  the  weight  was  carried  by  the 
girder  and  the  blue-brick  wall  mentioned. 
The    girder   was   designed  to  sustain  perma- 


ST.  MARY  WOOLNOTH — CRYPT,  SHOWING  VIEW  OF  OLD  FOUNDATIONS 
OF    COLUMNS    AND    ARCHES    SUPPORTING    CHURCH    FLOOR. 


nently  only  half  the  wall,  and  it  was  there- 
fore assisted  by  timber  packings  below. 

After  the  wall  had  been  pinned  up  above 
the  girder,  and  everything  was  made  solid  by 
grouting,  the  task  of  fixing  the  outer  girder 
became  comparatively  simple.  The  outer  half 
of  the  wall  below  the  needles  was  cut  away, 
and  the  girder,  meanwhile  built,  was  moved 
into  position.  Thus  the  whole  weight  of  the 
south  wall  was  received  by  the  two  girders. 

The  north  wall  on  the  Lombard  Street  side 
presented  a  much  greater  weight,  and  as  the 
work  of  supporting  it  could  not  be  under- 
taken   from    the    outside,    the 

method  adopted  on  the  south  Underpinning 

.  .,  ,       ^  the  North 

side  was  impossible.    One  main  ^  .. 

girder  was  accordingly  de- 
signed to  carry  the  entire  weight.  But  as 
it  could  not  be  placed  far  enough  under  the 
wall  to  be  in  a  position  to  do  this,  suspended 
needles  were  attached  to  support  the  outer 
part  of  the  wall,  their  tail  ends  being  tied 
down  to  one  of  the  girders  for  supporting  the 
roof  columns.  Needle  girders  were  fixed  just 
below  the  church  floor  level,  and  under  cover 
-  of  these  the  wall  was  cut  away  to  allow  the 


320 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


girder  to  be  fixed.  When  the  wall  had  been 
securely  pinned  up  above  the  girder,  the  sus- 
pended needles  were  put  in  one  at  a  time, 
the  intervening  masonry  being  held  up  by 
cross  steel  joists  placed  on  top  of  the  needles. 

In  every  case  the  deflection  of  the  girders 
had  been  taken  up  by  a  system  of  folding 
steel  wedges,  which  were  driven  up  as  the  old 
foundations  were  cut  away  and  the  super- 
incumbent weight  taken  by  the  girders.  The 
success  of  the  whole  operation  was  ascribed 
by  the  engineers  in  a  great  measure  to  the 
fact  that  grouting  under  air  pressure  had  been 
extensively  employed,  especially  in  filhng  up 
interstices  between  the  girders  and  the  old 
masonry. 

The  girders  are  supported  on  steel-work 
stanchions,  resting  on  large  bed  plates  formed 
of  steel  joists  and  plates  laid  on  a  concrete 
bed  having  a  minimum  thickness  of  three  feet. 


Girders,  stanchions,  and  bed  plates  were  filled 
in  solid  with  breeze  concrete  and  grout  ;  and 
to  guard  against  any  possible  deterioration 
through  neglect  of  future  painting,  all  were 
further  encased  in  the  same  material. 

In  this  ingenious  way  the  central  structure 
of  the  church,  weighing  500  tons,  the  south 
wall  of  350  tons,  and  the  north  wall  of  500 
tons  were  successively  brought  to  rest  on 
seven  main  girders,  each  weighing  from  25 
to  30  tons — masses  not  easily  handled  in  the 
very  limited  space  available. 

The  station  booking-hall  is  55  feet  by  40 
feet,  and  when  all  the  lifts  are  in  operation 
350  passengers  can  at  the  same  moment  ap- 
proach or  leave  the  railway.  The  whole  work 
was  carried  out  to  the  satisfaction  of  every 
one  concerned,  and  when  all  was  over  the 
authorities  of  St.  Mary  Woolnoth  offered  to 
sell  the  church  to  the  company ! 


[Note. — Thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  Francis  Fox,  M.Inst.C.E.,  and  to  Mr.  David  Hay, 

M.Inst.C.E.,  for  assistance  given  in  connection  with  the  letterpress 

and  illustrations  of  this  article.] 


^ 


A    MOTOR    RACE   ON    THE    BROOKLANDS    TRACK. 


LANCIA   TAKING    A   CORNEK    IHHINU    THE    VAMjEKiilLT   CLP    KAuE,    LO.NU    IaLASU,    i'.i^h). 

THE    DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE 
RACING   MOTOR  CAR. 

BY    GERALD    ROSE. 


Racing  Cars. 


FEW  persons  probably,  except  the  de- 
signers and  drivers  of  the  racing  cars 
which  compete  in  the  great  contests 
held  from  time  to  time  upon  the  open  highroad, 
reahze  the  marvellous  amount  of  care  and 
thought  which  go  to  the  successful  produc- 
tion of  such  machines.  By 
the  plain  person  they  are 
classed  with  the  taxi-cab  and  motor  'bus  as 
ordinary  "  motors,"  though  some,  perhaps, 
vaguely  recognize  their  metier  from  the  fact 
that  the  bonnet  is  large  and  the  seats  are 
small.  Not  unfrequently,  indeed,  one  hears  a 
passer-by  dignify  as  a  "  racer  "  some  inoffen- 
sive, low-powered  touring  chassis  which  is  out 
on  a  test  run,  fitted  with  the  meagre  seating 
accommodation  usually  allotted  to  those  un- 
fortunates   whose   task   it   is   to   guide   a   car 

(1,408) 


through  its  infantile  maladies  upon  the  road. 
But  even  the  little  crowd  which  has  happened 
upon  a  real  racing  car,  and  which,  after  a 
furtive  glance  at  the  axle-caps,  stands  detail- 
ing history  to  the  newcomers,  often  does  not 
realize  that  the  object  of  its  interest  has  surely 
a  worthy  claim  to  be  ranked  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  pieces  of  modern  machinei'y 
devised  by  the  mind  of  man. 

An  exaggeration  ?  Think  the  question  out. 
Here  is  no  engine  bolted  to  a  solid  bed-plate, 
working  under  unchanging  conditions  ;  no  tur- 
bine, humming  evenly  in  the 

What  is 
twinkling  engine-room  as  the  ^  ^     * 

®  ,      ^  ^11-      demanded  of 

bow-wave  curls  from  the   big  them. 

liner's   fore-foot ;     no    100- ton 

locomotive,  running  to  schedule  in  ponderoua 

contempt  of  the  endless  miles  of  smooth  shin- 

21  VOL.   HI. 


322 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


ing  rail,  stretching  in  perfect  symmetry  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  see.  Here  the  equation  of  suc- 
cess has  two  ever-varying  quantities — the  man 
and  the  open  road. 

For  the  racing  car  must  cover  the  roads  at 


motor  races  have  always  been  a  series  of  fierce 
struggles,  or  that  racing  cars  have  invariably 
been  enormously  powerful  machines.  In  the 
primitive  days  of  the  motor  vehicle  the  ques- 
tion was  not  so  much  whether  the  car  would 


THE    DE    DION    STEAM    TRACTOR,    THE    FIRST    CAR    TO    ARRIVE    IN    ROUEN 
DURING   THE    "PETIT    JOURNAL"    TRIALS    OF    1894. 


The  Cointe  de  Dion  is  driving. 


a  faster  average  than  ever  express  train  has 
need  of ;  and  it  must  work  throughout  at  full 
pressure,  devouring  space  on  the  level,  pulling 
up  with  grinding  brakes  and  skidding  wheels 
at  the  corners,  sliding  precariously  round,  to 
jerk  off  again  the  moment  the  bonnet  is 
straight,  with  never  a  respite  for  the  engine 
or  the  driver  from  the  ceaseless  bumps  and 
jars  and  jolts,  the  quick  accelerations  and 
abrupt  slowings-down  of  four  or  five  hundred 
miles.  And  these  are  the  mildest  conditions  : 
if  there  be  added  a  brutal,  a  "  harsh  "  driver, 
the  ordeal  becomes  doubly  hard.  Yet  many 
a  car  of  the  present  day  can  undergo  six  or 
seven  hours  of  this  racketing,  and  come  out 
of  the  severest  test  of  engine  and  gears  which 
can  be  imagined  as  fit  as  it  was  at  the  begin- 
ning. 

Conceive  it — a  ton  of  machinery  forced  over 
the  ordinary  road  at  eighty,  ninety,  a  hundred 
miles  an  hour,  with  nothing  to  lessen  the  road 
shocks  except  the  tyres  and  the  springs.  To 
the  driver  the  credit  of  holding  the  car  to  the 
road,  but  to  the  engineer  the  fame  for  build- 
ing so  marvellous  a  machine. 

But  it  must  by  no  means  be  imagined  that 


The  first 

Important 

Race. 


go  fast  as  whether  it  would  go  at  all ;  and  the 
enthusiasts  who  entered  for  the  competitions 
of  the  early  period  used  the 
same  machines  that  they  drove 
about  the  roads  for  ordinary 
purposes.  It  is  fifteen  years 
now  since  the  first  important  race  was  held  for 
motor  vehicles — though,  strictly  speaking,  it 
was  not  a  race,  as  the  question  of  speed  did 
not  enter  into  the  conditions.  This  was  the 
Paris-Rouen  trial,  organized  by  the  Petit  Jour- 
nal, which  offered  a  number  of  prizes  for  the 
self-propelled  vehicles  that  should  best  fulfil 
the  conditions  of  being  "  easily  handled,  cheap 
to  run,  and  without  danger  to  the  occupants." 
In  those  days  the  number  of  cars  actually  on 
the  road  was  comparatively  small  ;  but  the 
number  of  inventors  beginning  to  take  an  in- 
terest in  the  subject  was  large,  and  conse- 
quently when  the  Parisian  paper  mooted  the 
scheme  the  entries  were  numerous — in  fact, 
reached  the  remarkable  total  of  102.  But  of 
this  number  very  few  can  be  considered  as 
practical,  being,  like  a  large  number  of  present- 
day  aeroplanes,  epoch-making  successes — on 
paper.     Some  of  the  cars  were  stated  to  be 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    RACING    MOTOR    CAR.     323 


Paris  to 
Rouen. 


driven  by  levers,  others  by 
pedals.  Several  relied  for  their 
propulsive  power  upon  the  weight 
of  the  passengers — an  arrange- 
ment which  one  can  conceive  as 
working  admirably  downhill,  but 
which  would  seem  insufficient 
under  other  conditions.  High- 
pressure  gas,  pendulum,  hydrau- 
lic, electric,  and  compressed  air 
motors — all  wore  represented,  but 
the  greater  number  of  the  en- 
trants relied  upon  steam  or 
petrol. 

Some  preliminary  runs  were 
held  as  the  date  of  the  trials 
drew  near,  in  order  to  discover  if 
the  cars  were  really  capable  of  starting  upon 
the  trip  to  Rouen ;  for  the 
organizers  had  no  w^ish  for  a 
fiasco.  Twenty-three  cars  in  all 
received  the  official  sanction,  and  of  these  four- 
teen were  driven  by  petrol  and  nine  by  steam, 
all  those  relying  on  other  motive  agencies 
having  failed  to  put  in  an  appearance.  The 
drive  to  Rouen  was  full  of  exciting  episodes. 
Everywhere  along  the  route  the  crowds 
thronged  the  roads,  cheering  the  drivers  and 
throwing  bouquets  at  them — a  disconcerting 
form  of  compliment  which  gave  much  trouble 
in  the  old  days.  Of  the  twenty-one  starters, 
seventeen  reached  the  finish,  and  the  four 
which  broke  down  were  all  steam  cars.  Nom- 
inally, it  should  be  remembered,  this  was  not 
a  race  ;  but  there  was,  not  unnaturally,  a 
good  deal  of  competition  in  the  matter  of 
speed,  and  the  fastest  vehicle  was  the  De  Dion 
steam  tractor,  which  towed  behind  it  a  Vic- 
toria with  the  front  part  removed.  This  im- 
posing machine  covered  the  distance  between 
Paris  and  Rouen — about  80  miles — at  an 
average  speed  of  11  ^  miles  an  hour  ;  but  the 
first  prize  was  awarded  to  the  Panhard  and 
Peugeot  firms  equally,  as  the  judges  did  not 
consider  that  the  steam  car  was  of  the  type 


A  Humorous 
Incident. 


THE    CAR    ON    WHICH    LEVASSOR    WON    THE    PARIS-BORDEALX    RACE, 

1895. 


they  wished  to  encourage,  a  stoker  being 
necessary  as  well  as  a  driver.  Drivers  were 
scarce  in  those  days,  and  there 
is  an  amusing  story  told  con- 
cerning one  of  the  steam  cars, 
the  stoker  of  which  was  at  the  back  of  the 
vehicle,  and  in  communication  with  the  driver 
by  a  speaking-tube.  All  things  were  appar- 
ently going  smoothly,  when  suddenly  came  a 
message  through  the  tube  requesting  an  im- 
mediate stoppage.  When  the  car  had  come 
to  a  standstill  the  stoker  got  out,  and,  com- 
plaining that  he  was  too  hot,  announced  that 
he  intended  to  have  a  rest  beneath  the  shade 
of  a  tree.  The  driver  argued,  expostulated  ; 
the  stoker  grew  angry,  and  then  and  there 
resigned  his  position,  leaving  the  driver  in  a 
quandary,  as  he  could  not  proceed  without 
skilled  help.  Fortunately  at  that  moment  an- 
other steam  car  drove  up,  and  the  driver,  on 
hearing  of  the  difficulty,  lent  a  boy  of  thir- 
teen, who  made  an  admirable  substitute;  so 
the  cars  were  able  to  prooood  on  th«Mr  way  to 
Rouen. 

This  trip  was  the  virtual  birth  of  the  motor 
car,  and  from  it  dates  the  steady  and  unceas- 
ing development  of  the  self-propelled  vehicle, 
stimulated  as  it  has  been  by  the  races  organ- 


324 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


The  Paris- 
Bordeaux 
Race,   1895. 


A    BOLLEK    KAOING    CAR    OF    ib9i^. 

These  machines  were  refused  permission  to  compete  in  the  race  by  the  pohco 
authorities,  but  their  drivers  defied  the  regulations  and  went  through  the  event. 
Standinn;  by  the  car  is  M.  Etienne  Giraud,  who  used  the  vehicle  in  the  general 
manceuvres  of  that  year. 


ized  annually  by  the  various  automobile  clubs, 
and  in  particular  by  the  Automobile  Club  de 
France.  That  important  body, 
however,  did  not  come  into 
being  until  the  end  of  the 
following  year,  1895,  and  was 
really  the  outcome  of  a  committee  formed 
for  the  organization  of  a  big  race  from  Paris 
to  Bordeaux  and  back,  a  distance  of  some 
732  miles.  It  was  an  ambitious  scheme — 
a  wild  scheme,  people  said  at  the  time.  If 
it  was  difficult  to  get  these  machines  to  go 
for  even  twenty  miles  without  a  stoppage, 
how  would  it  be  possible  to  take  them  all  the 
way  from  Paris  to  Bordeaux  and  back  ?  But 
it  was  done  ;  and  M.  Levassor,  driving  per- 
sonally throughout  the  journey,  covered  the 
distance  in  48  hours  48  minutes,  at  an  average 
speed  of  about  15  miles  an  hour. 

His  car  was  typical  of  the  best  design  of 
the  period.  In  its  main  lines  it  was  remark- 
ably similar  to  the  cars  of  the  present  day, 
especially  in  the  arrangement  of  the  engine 
and  gearing.  It  possessed  a  vertical  motor 
in  front,  under  a  bonnet,  driving  through  a 


clutch  and  a  change-speed 
gear  to  a  counter-shaft,  on 
which  was  the  differential 
(the  device  for  allowing 
the  back  wheels  to  revolve 
at  different  speeds  when 
rounding  a  corner),  and 
thence  by  side-chains  to 
the  back  wheels.  If  a 
modern  chain-driven  car  be 
examined,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  main  details  are 
placed  as  in  Levassor's  No. 
5,  though  naturally  greatly 
modified  and  improved. 
But  in  many  ways  it 
differed  from  the  luxurious 
carriages  of  to-day.  The 
wheel  -  base  was  about  4 
feet  2  inches  (modern  cars 
have  a  wheel-base  of  10  feet  and  more),  the 
wheels  were  large  and  solid-tyred,  and  steering 
was  by  lever,  demanding  the  most  careful 
attention  to  avoid  accidents,  and  the  highest 
speed  on  the  level  was  about  20  miles  an  hour. 
In  the  following  year  the  committee,  now 
formed  into  the  Automobile  Club  de  France, 
organized  the  great  race  from  Paris  to  Mar- 
seilles and  back,  run  out  and 
home  in  ten  stages.  Thirty- 
two  cars  started,  and  after 
passing  through  the  most  ex- 
traordinary tribulations,  due  to  a  terrific 
storm  which  beset  them  on  the  second  and 
third  stages,  fifteen  reached  Marseilles.  It 
should  be  noted,  though,  that  of  these  fifteen 
fourteen  reached  Paris  again,  so  that  the 
numerous  failures  were  probably  due  in  great 
part  to  the  very  unpropitious  weather.  The 
winning  car,  Mayade's  Panhard,  had  a  four- 
cylinder  engine  of  eight  horse-power,  and 
weighed  very  much  the  same  as  the  racing- 
car  of  to-day. 

Little  change  took  place  in  the  following  year, 
and  there  was  no  race  of  any  importance,  so 


Paris- 
Marseilles- 
Paris,    1896. 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    RACING    MOTOR    CAR.    325 


Paris- 
Amsterdam - 
Paris,   1898. 


Tour  de 
France,   1899. 


that  the  next  great  event  was  the  Paris- Amster- 
dam-Paris race  of  1898.  This  was  the  first 
of  the  inter-country  contests, 
and  in  some  ways  was  consid- 
ered as  much  a  demonstration 
as  a  race.  The  most  import- 
ant innovation  introduced  was  wheel-steer- 
ing in  place  of  the  old  and  dangerous  lever, 
which  had  been  a  fruitful  source  of  accidents. 
Charron  had  a  four-cylinder  motor  of  eight 
horse-power  (but  balanced,  and  therefore  an 
improvement  on  Mayade's)  on  his  car,  and 
also  used  pneumatic  tyres  and  a  radiator  of 
gilled  tubing  slung  at  the  back  of  the  car. 
His  speed  showed  a  considerable  advance  on 
previous  records,  being  about 
27  miles  an  hour  over  the  890 
miles.  This  average  was  only 
slightly  increased  in  the  Tour  de  France,  the 
great  race  all  the  way  round  France — 1,350 
miles — which  was  the  chief  event  of  1899, 
though  the  winner,  the  Chev.  Rene  de  Knyff, 
was  driving  a  car  of  16  horse-power.  It  was 
during  this  contest  that  Charron  drove  for  25 
miles  backwards,  after  breaking  a  part  of  the 
machinery  which  prevented  him  proceeding  in 
any  other  manner — a  performance  which  is 
said  to  have  much  astonished  the  spectators 
he  met  on  the  road. 

By  this  time  the  racing  car  was  becoming  a 
machine  quite  distinct  from  the  touring  car. 
The  old  saying,  "  The  racing  car  of  one  year 
is  the  touring  car  of  the  next  " 
held  good  until  about  1904, 
and  many  an  old  racer  has 
finished  its  life  with  a  big  ton- 
neau  instead  of  the  two-seated  body.  But  the 
speeds  needed  for  successful  racing  were  now 
so  high  that  the  machines  used  in  the  contests 
were  of  quite  another  build  from  their  con- 
temporaries which  had  a  less  exciting  pur- 
pose. Early  in  1900,  Levegh  accomplished 
an  average  of  51 J  miles  an  hour  between 
Bordeaux  and  Perigueux.  None  of  the  com- 
petitors  in   the    first    Gordon-Bennett    race 


First  Gordon- 
Bennett  Race, 
1900. 


CHAKKO.>    t-.>    o.NK    OF    THE    12    HOK.^h-io  \^  KR 

PANHARDS    OF    1899. 

These  cars  were  the  first  with  the  radiator  in  front 
of  the  bonnett 


approached  this  speed,  Charron,  the  winner, 
recording  38|.  This,  the  first  of  the  great  inter- 
national contests,  was  somewhat  of  a  fiasco. 
France,  Belgium,  and  America  competed,  the 
first-named  with  tliree  champions,  and  the 
others  with  one  each.  The  winner  had  at  one 
time  given  up  altogether,  but  finding  that  all 
the  others  were  out  of  it  except  one,  and  that 
one  a  long  way  behind,  he  took  heart  again, 
and  finished,  though  nearly  placed  hors  de  com- 
bat at  the  last  moment  by  a  large  St.  Bernard 
dog. 

Racing-car  construction  was  now  advancing 
by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  Fournier's  Mors,  on 
which  he  averaged  53  miles  an  hour  from  Paris 
to  Bordeaux,  was  a  machine 
very  different  from  the  Mors  Weight 
of  1899.  A  month  afterwards 
Fournier  repeated  his  success  in  the  Paris- 
Berlin  race,  which  was  a  duel  between  the 
Mors  and  the  Panhard.  Both  these  types  were 
very  heavy,  and  the  authorities  began  to  realize 
that  the  effect  of  allowing  a  free  hand  to  the 
designers  was  bad,  as  they  merely  produced 
heavier  vehicles  each  year.  So  for  1902  it  was 
decided  to  restrict  all  cars  to  1,000  kilos  (or 
2,204  lbs.).  This  led  to  a  great  improvement 
of  the  design,  as  the  designers  were  compelled 
to  find  the  solution  of  a  problem  which  re- 
quired the  combination  of  the  utmost  speed 
with  the  greatest  reliability  for  this  given 
weight.    It  was  at  first  thought  that  the  result 


326 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


FLORAL   TRIBUTES    EN   ROUTE    DURING   THE    PARIS-BORDEAUX    RACE,    1901. 


would  be  a  lessening  of  power  and  a  gradual 
diminution  in  the  size  of  the  cars  ;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  the  vehicles  of  1902  were  more 
powerful  than  any  yet  made,  and  in  addition 
possessed  many  innovations  which  can  only 
be  attributed  to  the  new  weight  regulation. 
The  Paris- Vienna  race  of  that  year  passed 
through  Switzerland,  the  stages  being  Paris- 
Belfort,  Belfort-Bregenz  (this  stage  was  neu- 
tralized, as  the  Swiss  disapproved  of  the  rac- 
ing), Bregenz-Salzburg,  and  Salzburg- Vienna. 
Between  Bregenz  and  Salz- 
burg the  cars  had  to  pass  over 
the  Arlberg,  a  remarkable 
mountain  climb  which  was 
full  of  trials  for  the  cars  and  the  men  in  charge. 
In  the  course  of  the  60-mile  climb  the  road 
rose  about  5,000  feet,  and  for  the  greater  part 
was  fringed  by  precipices,  with  nothing  but 
small  boundary-stones  between  the  car  and 
the  drop.  It  is  surprising  that  accidents  were 
confined  to  a  number  of  minor  mishaps,  but 
nothing  serious.  Marcel  Renault,  on  a  light 
car  of  his  own  construction,  made  the  fastest 


The  Paris- 

Vienna  Race, 

1902. 


time  between  Paris  and  Vienna,  and  the  fact 
that  his  little  16  horse-power  machine  beat  all 
the  bigger  racers  is  an  eloquent  testimony  to 
the  advantage  of  lightness  on  a  hilly  and 
rough  road. 

The  Paris-Madrid  race,  consisting  of  that  ill- 
starred  dash  to  Bordeaux  which  will  always  be 
remembered  on  account  of  the  many  unfor- 
tunate fatalities  which  have  to  be  recorded 
in  connection  with  it,  was  the  last  of  the  great 
inter-country  races — and  in  a  way  it  can  hardly 
be  considered  as  an  inter-country  event,  for  the 
competitors  got  no  farther  than  Bordeaux. 
At  this  period  the  cars  had  assumed  very 
much  the  same  appearance  as  that  which  dis- 
tinguishes them  to-day — long  wheel-base,  and 
a  big  bonnet  housing  a  powerful  engine  giving 
abnormal  speed.  These  two  years,  1902  and 
1903,  may  be  considered  the  period  in  which 
the  development  of  the  racing  vehicle  was 
most  rapid,  a  fact  probably  due  chiefly  to 
the  weight  limit  ;  for  the  racers  of  1903  are 
infinitely  more  like  those  of  1906  than  the 
machines  of  1899  resemble  those  of  1902.     The 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    RACING    MOTOR    CAR.    327 


lengthened  wheel-base  and  improvements  in 
steering-gear  made  it  possible  to  hold  a  machine 
on  the  road  at  speeds  hitherto  unattainable  ; 
and  the  increase  in  the  power  of  the  engines 
has  never  ceased,  even  in  the  days  of  cylinder 
bore  restrictions. 

Gabriel,    it    will    be   remembered,    won   the 
stage  to  Bordeaux  on  his  Mors  with  an  aver- 
age speed  of  some   65   miles  an  hour.     It  is 
said    that    he    went    through 

lyres  ana      without  changing  a  tyre,  and 
Speed.  , 

surprise  is  sometimes  expressed 

at  this,  in  view  of  the  multitudinous  tyre- 
changes  of  modern  days.  But  the  reason — 
apart  from  the  question  of  luck — is  simple. 
For  the  first  time  the  tyre  manufacturers  ha:l 
overtaken  the  designers  in  the  matter  of  speed. 
At  first  the  cars  travelled  at  a  faster  speed 
than  the  tyres  would  stand,  and  the  drivers 
suffered  greatly  in  consequence  from  bursts 
and  punctures.  But  in  1902  and  1903  the 
standard  of  tyre  resistance  was  higher 
than  the  strain  of  the  speed  which  the  cars 


could  develop  (except  for  very  short  periods 
downhill),  and  therefore  the  limit  of  tyre  en- 
durance was  not  reached.  Thus  Gabriel's  car 
could  probably  not  sustain  a  speed  of  90  miles 
an  hour  for  any  length  of  time,  the  usual  top 
speed  being  (in  the  race,  not  at  a  sprint  meet- 
ing) in  all  probability  80  to  85.  At  this  speed 
the  tyres  could  hold  out — and  did  so.  Where- 
as in  modern  days,  with  maximum  speeds  of 
105  or  110  miles  an  hour,  the  tyres  cannot 
stand  up  under  the  stresses.  From  which  it 
will  be  gathered  that  the  designers  have  again 
outdistanced  the  tyre  manufacturers. 

The  same  freedom  from  tyre  worries  assisted 
Jenatzy  greatly  in  winning  the  Gordon- 
Bennett  race  in  Ireland  in  1903 
be  remembered  that  the  car 
he  drove  was  a  stripped  tour- 
ing Mercedes  of  ordinary  pat- 
tern, as  the  big  90  horse-power  cars  of  that 
make  had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  Here  again 
the  comparatively  low  top  speed  was  a  great 
factor  in  the  life  of  the  tjTe. 


and  it  should 

Racing  in 
Ireland,   1903. 


THE   NAPIER    WHICH    WON   THE   GORDON-BENNETT    RACE    OF    1902. 

In  the  f>\r  >vr.v  \!  .-.srs.  Edge  and  Xapier. 


328 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THE    CAR   WHICH    WON   THE    CiORDON-BENNETT    RACE    OF    1903 


BARAS    ON    ONE    OF   THE    DARRACQ    RACERS    OF    1904. 

On  this  car  he  hekl  for  over  a  year  the  world's  flying  kilometre  record,  at  the 
rate  of  105  miles  an  hour.  These  were  the  first  heavy  lacing  cars  built  by  the 
Darracq  firm,  and  were  not  very  successful  in  the  long-distance  races. 


JENATZY   ON   A    120    HORSE-POWER    RACER    OF    1905. 

The  Cup  having  been  won  for  Germany 
by  Jenatzy,  the  Gordon-Bennett  race  of  1904 
took  place  on  a  circuit  starting  from  Homburg, 
in  the  Taunus.     Jenatzy  was  on  this  occasion 


also   the   principal    driver 
of  the  German  team,  and 
had    a    fierce     duel     with 
Thery,      who      won       for 
France  by  about  ten  min- 
utes.     Of    the    two,    the 
German  car — a  90   horse- 
power Mercedes — was  the 
more  powerful ;  but  Thery 
had    a    sympathetic    and 
regular  method  of  driving, 
which   gave   him   the   ad- 
vantage   over    his    rival, 
although  the  latter  knew  the 
course  far  better,  having  prac- 
tised    regularly     for     weeks 
beforehand.     This    practising 
has  become  a  very  important 
point  in  racing.     When  fifths 
of   a   second  are  valuable,  it 
is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  know  exactly  the  highest 
speed   at   which    every   bend 
and    corner    may    be    taken 
without   disaster,  and  conse- 
quently the  driver  who  knows 
his  circuit  by  heart  stands  a 
very  good  chance  in  the  race 
if  his  car  is  fast  enough. 

At  this  point  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  racing 
vehicle  the  building  of  such 

cars     became 

Practical 

Results  of 

Racing. 

mal        speeds 

over  long  distances  try  the 
engines  to  the  utmost,  and  it 
was  found  that  it  was  no 
longer  sufficient  to  put  a 
powerful  engine  into  a  chassis 
that  came  just  within  the  weight  limit,  and 
enter  it  for  the  great  races.  Such  had 
hitherto  been  standard  practice,  but  by 
degrees    the  manufacturers    found  that   they 


a    science    to 
itself.    Abnor- 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    RACING    MOTOR    CAR.     329 


depended  upon  their  racing  cars  for  their 
reputations,  and  they  therefore  began  to 
spend  a  great  deal  of  time  and  money  in 
perfecting  their  designs.  This  was  without 
question  good  for  the  general  standard  of 
progress,  but  it  involved  a  considerable  dis- 
organization of  factory  routine  and 
a  very  large  expenditure  of  money. 
Hence  makers  now  began  to  object 
to  racing. 

In  1905  the  cars  were  designed  to 
suit  the  circuit  which  had  been  chosen 
as  the  scene  of  the  Gordon-Bennett — 
a  circuit  very  differ- 
ent from  the  usual 
type,  being  full  of  bad 
corners  and  danger- 
ous places.  The  cars  were  of  very 
diverse    types  —  some    large,   others 


Thery  on  a  Richard- Brasier,  which  was  one  of 
the  most  moderately  powered  cars  in  the  con- 
test; and  his  subsequent  victory  in  the  Gordon- 
I^nnett  itself  added  the  fourth  successive  win 
to  the  laurels  of  the  famous  Frenchman.  Tliis 
race  at  one  time  seemed  to  be  in  the  hands  of 


The  last  Gor 

don- Bennett 

Race,    1905. 


JENATZY   COMING    UP   TO   TAKE    THE    HAIRPIN   TURNING   AT    ROCHEFORT    IN 
THE    GORDON-BENNETT    RACE    OF    1905. 


comparatively  small,  like  the  Darracqs,  which 
were  amongst  the  most  successful  of  the 
year.  In  one  case  an  underslung  frame  was 
used,  to  obtain  higher  speed  on  the  curves  by 
lowering  the  centre  of  gravity  ;  and  in  most  of 
the  vehicles  great  care  was  taken  with  regard 
to  clutches  and  cooling  systems — vital  points  on 
such  a  circuit.     The  French  trials  were  won  by 


LANCIA,  THE  HERO  OF  THE 
1905  GORDON  -  BENNETT 
RACE. 

These  cars  were  amongst  the 
fastest  of  1905,  and  Lancia,  after 
losing  the  Gordon- Bennett  through 
a  damaged  radiator,  subsequently 
lost  the  Vanderbilt  Cup,  when 
leading  by  a  considerable  margin, 
through  a  collision  with  a  com- 
petitor. 

Lancia,  who  drove  mag- 
nificently throughout  the 
first  two  laps  ;  but  at  the 
end  of  the  third  he  dam- 
aged his  radiator  in  some 
way,  and  was  compelled 
to  retire.  This  was  the 
last  of  the  Grordon-Bennett 
races,  for  the  French  decided  not  to  com- 
pete again  until  the  rules  had  been  altered 
so  as  to  give  each  country  representation 
proportionate  to  its  capacity  for  producing 
cars.  With  this  end  in  view  they  substi- 
tuted their  Grand  Prix,  which  was  in  1906  a 
two-day  affair,  won  by  a  Renault  piloted  by 
Szisz,  who  averaged   about  67   miles  per  hour 


330 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


EMMERY   ON   A   DARKAOQ   OF    IDUo. 

On  this  car  he  won  the  Circuit  des  Ardennes  and  the  Amo.icani  Vanderbilt  Cup. 
Wagner,  on  a  sister  machine,  was  at  one  time  leading  in  the  French  Gordon-Bennett 
trials,  but  was  hindered  by  tyre  troubles.  A  comparison  of  this  picture  with  the 
Darracq  of  19C4  shows  the  very  great  alteration  in  design  made  by  JI.  Darracq. 


during  the  first  de-y,  and  covered  the  770 
miles  at  an  average  speed  of  03  miles  an 
hour. 

A  notable  innovation  used  during  this  race 
— which,  in  fact,  influenced  the  whole  result  of 
the  Grand  Prix — was  the  detachable  rim.  This 
enabled  the  driver  (who,  under 
the  new  regulations,  was  com- 
pelled to  carry  out  all  repairs 
and  replacements  aided  only  by  his  mechanic) 
to  remove  the  rim  and  the  damaged  tyre  siniul- 


Detachable 
Rims. 


taneously,  and  replace  it  by 
another  rim  carrying  a  fresh 
tyre  already  inflated.  This 
reduced  the  time  for  a  tyre 
replacement  to  about  two 
minutes,  whereas  previously 
ten  minutes  had  been  con- 
sidered very  short  time  for 
the  skilled  racing  mechanics 
to  effect  a  change. 

After  the  big  race  another 
alteration  of  the  rules  was 
made,  in  which  the  important 
step  of  abolishing  the  weight 
limit  was  taken.  Instead,  a 
regulation  was  imposed  re- 
stricting the  fuel  allowance 
of  the  Grand  Prix  cars  to  approximately 
9J  miles  to  the  gallon,  and  by 
this  rule  it  was  hoped  to 
limit  the  huge  engines  which 
had  come  into  vogue  during  the  last  few 
years.  But  it  certainly  failed  in  its  objeci:, 
for  so  large  an  allowance  permitted  an 
engine  of  the  same  size  as  before,  and  only 
resulted  in  fine  adjustment  of  the  carburettor 
—in  fact,  the  big  race  of  1907  was  won  by 
Nazzaro  with  an  engine  of  the  same  size  as 


Limitation 
in  Fuel. 


"mj 


THE   THOMAS    SIX-CYLINDER   RACING    CAR   OF    1905. 

In  this  car  the  length  of  the  bonnet  M'as  greatly  increased  by  the  position  of  the  tanks,  which  were  in  front  of,  instead  of 
behind,  the  driver.     The  latter,  with  the  mechanic,  sat  behind  the  back  axle. 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    RACING    MOTOR    CAR.     331 


that  used  in  1906,  at  an 
average  speed  of  over  70  miles 
an  hour.  A  few  months  later 
the  rules  were  again  altered, 
this  time  in  a  more  practical 
direction,  for  the  bore  of  the 
engine  was  restricted  to  155 
millimetres.  As  the  ordinary 
engine  of  1906  and  1907  had 
a  bore  of  some  180  or  185 
millimetres,  this  was  a  sub- 
stantial reduction. 

It  produced  some  very  not- 
able results  ;  for  the  bore 
having  been  limited,  the 
stroke  of  the  engine  was 
greatly  lengthened  by  some 
makers,  and  in  some  cases  the 
power  obtained  far  exceeded 
that  which  it  had  been  the 
custom  to  expect  from  the 
racers  of  the  former  years. 
Certainly  the  Grand  Prix  cars 
of  1908  were  the  fastest  road- 
racing  vehicles  ever  produced, 
and  caused  an  alteration  of 
ideas  concerning  the  high- 
speed petrol  engine  which  can 
almost  be  called  a  revolution. 
In  1909  it  had  been  decided 
to     reduce     still     further     the 


THE   SIX-CYLINDER   NAPIER   OF    li)05. 

This  car  was  the  fastest  English  road-racer  ever  built,  and  still  holds  a  number 
of  world's  records,  made  by  Macdonald  at  Florida  in  1905.  It  competed  in  the 
Gordon- Bennett  race  of  1905  in  the  Auvergne. 


WAGNER,    THE    WINNER   OF   THE    VANDERBILT   CUP   OF    190'),    ON   HIS 
SUCCESSFUL   DARRACQ. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  this  car  with  those  of  1904  and  1905.     The  change- 
speed  lever  was  placed  at  the  side  instead  of  beneath  the  steering-column,  and 

(letachahlo  rim'i  were  fitted. 


DURAY    AT    FULL   SPEED   IN   THE    GRAND    PRIX    OF    1U07,    IN    WHICH    HE    COVERED    EIGHT    LAPS    AT    AN 
AVERAGE   SPEED   OF   OVER   SEVENTY   MILES    AN   HOUR. 


332 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


GAr     :;  ;  ,m  PARIS-MADRID    RACE    OP    1908,    ON   ONE   OF 

THE    1908    GRAND   PRIX   CLEMENT-BAYARD    CARS. 

These  were  very  powerful  machines,  and  about  the  fastest  in  the  race. 

bore   to  130   millimetres,  and  the  mini- 
mum  weight   was    also    altered    to    900 

kilogrammes,  but   the   prominent   manu- 
facturers decided  to  refrain  from  further 

racing,   signing    a   bond    to    that    effect. 

Consequently  the  race  fell  through,  and 

no  important  event  was  held  that  year. 

This  seems  to   have  made  an  unfavour- 
able    impression     on     those     who    were 

responsible  for  it,  as  it  is  now  proposed 

to    hold    the    Grand    Prix    in    1910,   but 

entirely  without  restrictions  of  any  kind — 

a    proceeding  which  is   hardly  likely  to 

assist  the  progress  of  design. 

Track   racing    is   a    branch    of    motor 

racing  that  has    come  into 

prominence  of  late  owing  to 

the  opening  of  the  Brook- 
lands  track, 
sp  ec  ially 

built  for  high-speed    work, 

the  banking  being  designed 

for  speeds  up  to   130  miles 

an  hour.    This  kind  of  work 

develops    a    car   of    a  type 

totally    different    from    the 

road  racer,  as  the  track  car 

requires    none    of    the    re       ouray  on  one  of  the  190S  grand  prix  de  dietrichs. 


liability  which  is  a  vitally 
important  quality  of  the 
other.  Here  the  machine 
is  called  upon  merely  to 
make  a  sprint  of  several 
minutes,  and  as  long  as  it 
can  keep  up  the  required 
speed  during  one  race  it 
can  be  tinkered  with  before 
the  next  event.  Neverthe- 
less high  speed  at  Brook- 
lands  is  a  very  severe  test 
of  the  solidity  of  a  car,  for 
slight  inequalities  in  the 
track,  unnoticeable  at 
speeds    below    sixty    miles 


an   ENGLISH    RACING   CAR. 
Weigel  on  one  of  his  o\m  machines  before  the  Grand  Prix  of  1908. 


Track  Racing:. 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    RACING    MOTOR    CAR.     333 


an  hour,  become  formidable 
bumps  when  taken  at  high 
speed ;  and  it  is  quite  com- 
mon to  watch  some  driver 
who  is  going  fast  high  up  on 
the  high  banking,  jolting  far 
out  of  liis  seat  as  the  springs 
work  to  their  full  extent.  The 
most  remarkable  performance 
made  upon  the  track  is  the 
record  lap  covered  at  the  rat« 
of  121-64  miles  an  hour  by 
Nazzaro  on  Whit  Monday, 
1908,  during  the  F.I.  A.T.- 
Napier match.  In  this  race 
the  famous  Italian  drove  a 
specially-built  machine,  with 
an  enormous  engine  of  some 
180  horse-power,  and  in  all 
probability  the  utmost  speed 
of  the  car  has  yet  to  be  re- 
corded. 

Track    racing     has    always 
been     very     popular    in     the 
States,  where  the  old  trotting 
tracks  are  pressed  into  service 
— a   most   unsafe    proceeding, 
as .  the  surfaces    are    made  of 
dirt,    and  the  turns  in  many 
cases     not     banked     at     all. 
There  have  been  many  fatali- 
ties in  consequence  at  Ameri- 
can track-racing  meetings,  and 
the  newly-opened  India- 
napolis course,  which  was 
designed    for    high-speed 
cars,  has  already  a  long 
list  of   casualties    to    its 
name.    Such  things,  how- 
ever, are  of  little  account 
in    the    States,    and    the 
fascination  of   the   track 
still  holds  good, 

A  word  should  be  said 
about  the  specially-built 


THE    MERCEDES    WmCH    WON   THE   GRAND   PRIX   OF    i\)06. 

This  machine  represents  the  highest  pitch  of  perfection  in  racing-car  design 
yet  attained.     It  ran  without  mud-guards  in  the  race. 


A   RACING    CAR   DE    LUXE. 


One  of  the  Napiers  built  under  the  regulations  of  the  Grand  Prix  of  1908.  These 
cars  had  a  remarkable  system  of  rear-springing,  which  can  be  distinguished  in  tlie 
photo. 


A   BROOKLANDS   MERCEDES. 


334 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


THE   200   HORSE-POWER    DARRACQ    SPECIAL   CAR. 

This  machine,  which  is  the  most  powerful  in  existence,  hokls  eiglit  world's 
records,  and  has  dons  2  miles  in  58*  seconds.  It  is  now  the  property  of 
Mr.  A.  Lee  Guinness.  It  is  of  the  purest  racing  type,  and  has  two  speeds, 
45  and  90  miles  per  hour. 

"  record-breaking  "  sprint  machine.     The  first 
was    probably    Jenatzy's    "  La    Jamais    Con- 
tent,"    an    electric     cigar    on 
Record =break-  ^y^^els,  with  which  the  impet- 

^  uous    Belgian    established    the 

Cars.  f 

flying  kilometre  record  in 
1899,  at  the  rate  of  65|  miles  per  hour.  Since 
that  day  many  others  have  arisen,  performed 


for  a   moment,  and   then  disap- 
peared,    though     the     kilometre 
record  has  been  held  mostly  by 
road-racing    cars,     it     must     be 
acknowledged.     There    were    the 
Serpollets  of  1901  and  1902,  both 
strange-looking  steam  cars  ;  Bow- 
den's    American    Mercedes,    with 
two     60     horse  -  power      engines 
coupled  in  tandem,  and  a  bonnet 
to   match  ;   the    150   horse-power 
Dufaux,  the  biggest   engine  ever 
put    into    a    practical    car  ;     the 
giant     F.I.A.T.,      already     men- 
tioned ;      and     the      remarkable 
machine  which  appeared  in  De- 
cember    1905  —  the     200     horse- 
power  Darracq.      This   "  speed-beast  "  broke 
the  flj'ing  kilometre  record  forty-eight  hours 
after  it  was  finished,  and  subsequently  at  the 
Ormond-Daytona    speed    trials    covered    two 
miles  in  58|  seconds.     Thence  it  passed  into 
the  hands  of  its  present  owner,  Mr.  A.  Lee 
Guinness,    who    occasionally    takes    it    to    a 
meeting  and  sweeps  the  board. 


PRINCIPAL 

TIME  RECORDS   TO   DATE. 

Distance 

Time. 

Average  Speed. 

Holder. 

Where  made. 

Year. 

min.  sec. 

miles  per  hour. 

1  kilometre  (flying  start) 

17f 

125-9 

Hemery. 

Brooklands. 

1909 

1  kilometre  (standing  start) 

27| 

81-6 

Macdonald. 

1906 

1  mile  (flying  start)     . 

281 

127-7 

Marriott. 

1906 

1  mile  (standing  start) 

37| 

96-3 

Macdonald. 

1906 

2  miles  (flying  start)   . 

584 

122-4 

Demogeot. 

1906 

5  miles  (standing  start)    . 

2    47A 

107-7 

Marriott. 

1906 

10  miles  (standing  start) 

6    15 

96-0 

Macdonald. 

1906 

15  miles  (standing  start) 

10    0 

900 

Lancia. 

1906 

DISTANCE   RECORDS. 


Time. 

Distance. 

Average  Speed. 

Holder. 

Where  made. 

Year. 

1  hour . 

2  hours 

12  hours    .     , 
24  hours   . 

89  miles  892  yards. 
173  miles  810  yards. 
799  miles  1,600  yards. 
1,581  miles  1,310  yards. 

89-5 
86-7 
66-7 
65-9 

Smith. 
Smith. 
Edge. 
Edge. 

Brooklands. 

') 

1909 
1909 
1907 
1907 

[Note. — The,  thanks  of  the  writer  are  due  to  Messrs.  De  Dion  Bouton,  Ltd.,  for  permission 
to  reproduce  the  illustration  of  the  De  Dion  Tractor  ;  also  to  the  Mercedes  Company, 
Messrs.  A.  Darracq  and  Company,  and  Messrs.  S.  F.  Edge  {1907),  Ltd.,  for  the  loan 
of  photographs  of  Mercedes,  Darracq,  Napier,  and  Hutton  racing  cars.'] 


INSERTING    A    25-LB.    BOMB    IN    A    200-FEET    BORE-HOLE. 


ARTESIAN    WELLS,    AND    HOW 
THEY   ARE   BORED. 

BY    WILLIAM    H.    BOOTH,    M.Am.Soc.C.E. 


FROM  time  immemorial  value  has 
always  been  placed  upon  wells.  So 
highly  are  wells  esteemed  that  even 
amongst  the  most  barbarous  races  they  are 
rarely  poisoned  in  the  path  of  an  advancing 
enemy.  In  torrid  climes  good  water  is  often 
unobtainable  on  the  surface.  The  well,  how- 
ever, dug  deeply  down  into  the  ground,  reaches 
water  which  has  percolated  perhaps  many 
miles  horizontally  along  the  strata  of  the 
earth  from  regions,  such  as  hills,  that  are  more 
favoured  with  rainfall  than  are  the  arid  plains. 


Artesian 
Wells. 


All  ancient  wells  known  to  European  civili- 
zation were  formed  by  digging  circular  shafts 
into  the  earth,  and,  where  necessary,  lining 
them  with  stone  or  with  bricks, 
or  even  with  timber.  In  this 
country  still  exist  dug  wells 
which  are  believed  to  be  of  Roman  construc- 
tion. The  artesian  well,  which  now  so  often 
takes  the  place  of  the  older  dug  well,  is  made 
by  boring  into  the  earth  a  comparatively  small 
hole.  This  type  of  well  had  its  origin,  so  far 
as  we  know  as  regards  Europe,  in  the  French 


336 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


province  of  Artois ;  though  later  knowledge 
tells  us  that  the  bored  well  has  been  known 
to  the  Chinese  for  many  centuries,  so  that  the 
wells  of  Artois  were  at  most  but  bored  on  a 
re-discovered  method  long  familiar  to  the 
Chinese. 

In  a  district  where  the  water  in  the  ground 
naturally  rises  above  the  surface  when  set  free 
by  a  bore-hole,  the  artesian  well  with  a  diameter 
of  only  three  or  four  inches  is  practicable. 

Though  the  artesian  well  was  primarily 
bored  only  where  water  was  confidently  anti- 
cipated to  overflow  the  surface,  the  original 
signification  of  the  term  is  now  almost  lost, 
and  any  well,  bored,  in  place  of  being  dug,  is 
now  quite  commonly  called  artesian.  Neces- 
sarily, such  a  bored  well  must  be  large  enough 
to  contain  a  single  barrel  pump  of  a  size 
sufficient  to  raise  the  quantity  of  water 
required. 

Every  drop  of  water  that  exists  in  the 
ground  comes  originally  from  the  atmosphere. 
A  very  usual  estimate  of  what  happens  to  the 
rain  which  falls  upon  the 
earth's  surface  is  that  one- 
third  of  it  runs  off  promptly  into  the  streams 
and  rivers  ;  one-third  is  dried  up  by  the  sun 
and  air  ;  and  one-third  sinks  into  the  ground 
and  subsequently  appears  as  springs,  or  finds 
its  way  into  the  sea  below  water-level.  It 
is  obvious  that  all  the  fissures  and  porous 
rocks  of  the  earth's  surface,  where  accessible 
to  rainfall,  must  be  filled  with  water  at  least 
to  sea-level,  for  the  ground  cannot  possibly 
be  drained  by  gravitation  to  a  level  lower 
than  that  of  the  sea.  Over  great  parts  of 
the  earth's  surface  the  ground  is  filled  to 
much  higher  levels,  and  springs  are  found 
issuing  from  the  ground  even  near  mountain 
tops.  The  formation  of  a  spring  is  simple. 
Rain  sinking  into  the  earth  descends  until  it 
encounters  an  impermeable  stratum.  The 
water  thus  checked  in  its  downward  path  flows 
along  this  stratum  until  it  reaches  the  surface, 
and  finds  its  way  out  through  some  opening. 


Subterranean 
Streams. 


Dug  Wells. 


Where  rocks  are  soluble,  as  are  chalk  and 
limestone,  large  underground  water  passages 
often  exist,  and  rivers  disappear  entirely  below 
ground  in  many  cases  where 
the  rocks  in  which  they  flow 
are  drained  at  some  lower 
point.  The  Mole  in  Surrey  is  an  example  of 
a  river  which  thus  burrows  beneath  the  sur- 
face ;  and  the  streams  of  the  Derbyshire 
limestone  may  often  be  heard  tinkling  below 
their  dry  mossy  beds  in  summer  time,  when 
the  rocks  are  not  filled  to  their  customary 
winter's  level. 

It  has  occasionally  happened  that  hard  and 
much-fissured  rocks  have  yielded  water  from 
wells,  and  living  creatures  have  been  found  in 
it.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  water 
which  penetrates  to  any  depth 
below  the  surface  must  pass  through  a  con- 
siderable thickness  of  surface  soil.  This  thor- 
oughly filters  out  all  living  germs,  so  that,  as 
a  rule,  water  from  wells  is  of  the  highest 
organic  purity.  It  contains  only  soluble 
minerals,  such  as  carbonate  or  sulphate  of 
lime,  the  two  principal  agents  which  render 
water  hard.  But  otherwise  the  water  contains 
nothing  unsafe.  Now,  when  a  well  is  of  large 
size,  as  it  must  be  when  dug,  its  water  may 
be  seriously  endangered  by  the  entrance  of 
foreign  bodies.  Surface  drainage  soaks  down 
behind  the  brick  lining,  and  is  often  an  un- 
suspected cause  of  danger  ;  and  in  many  ways 
the  direct  communication  with  the  surface  is 
a  danger.  Dug  wells  are  always  prone  to  run 
dry.  They  cannot  be  carried  below  water- 
level  except  by  the  assistance  of  powerful 
pumps.  When  a  well  is  dug  at  a  period  of 
high- water  level,  it  invariably  runs  dry  sooner 
or  later,  and  the  writer  has  walked  on  the 
dry  bottom  of  many  a  well  and  heading  in 
the  chalk.  Then  is  the  time  to  deepen  the 
well  to  the  low- water  level,  for  years  may 
elapse  before  a  drought  occurs  so  severe  as 
to  cause  this  deeper  well  to  run  dry.  The 
water-level   is   always   rising   or   falling,    and 


ARTESIAN    WELLS,    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE    BORED.    337 


there  is  no  real  permanence 
of  supply  in  a  well  dug  barely 
below  tliis  zone.  What  is 
needed  is  evidently  some 
method  of  making  wells  which 
shall  reach  far  enough  below 
the  lowest  drought  water- 
level,  and  shall  be  safe  from 
any  of  the  dangers  of  pol- 
lution enumerated  above. 

The  wells  of  Artois,  which 
were  bored  into  the  earth  by 
means  of  chisels  and  augers, 
have  furnished  the  solution, 
though  it  is  only  by  modern 
methods  and 
Lining         materials  that 

Wells.  *^®  ^"^^  safety 
of  the  artesian 
method  has  been  secured.  The 
earlier  bored  vtells  were  lined  in  a  very  inferior 
manner.  Simple  tubes  of  riveted  sheet-iron 
were  employed  to  prevent  the  earth  from  being 
pushed  inwards.  These  crude  pipes  were  in- 
serted in  the  bore-hole  and  driven  down  with 
wooden  mallets.  Fresh  lengths  were  riveted 
to  the  top  of  the  pipe  and  forced  down  until 
no  further  progress  could  be  made.  Then  a 
similar  pipe  of  less  diameter  was  inserted 
within  the  outer  pipe,  and  this  in  turn  was 
sunk  into  the  boring  as  this  proceeded  below 
the  lower  end  of  the  lining  tube  ;  and  similarly 
other  pipes  of  successively  decreasing  diameter, 
until  finally  the  work  was  stopped  by  the 
finding  of  water,  or  the  hole  became  too  small 
to  continue. 

Practice  and  local  knowledge  determine  the 
initial  diameter  which  should  enable  water  to 
be  reached.  A  modern  lining  tube  is  never 
less  than  ^"  thick,  increasing  to  tV",  or  even 
§"  for  larger  sizes.  The  pipes  are  of  lap-welded 
wrought-iron  or  steel,  and  are  turned  off 
squarely  at  each  end  to  an  exact  length, 
usually  of  ten  feet.  A  screw  thread  is  cut  on 
each  end,  after  it  has  been    '  creased  "  in,  or 

(1,408) 


SINKING    A    WELL    IN    A    RIVER    BED. 

{Photo,  hij  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Luke  and  Ockcndcn.) 


reduced  in  diameter,  by  ^  inch.  Then  upon 
the  ends  are  screwed  thin  sockets  of  steel. 
As  a  result  of  the  "  cressing,"  the  outer 
diameter  of  the  sockets  is  only  slightly  larger 
than  the  body  of  the  pipes.  When  tightly 
screwed  up,  the  pipe  ends  butt  closely  to- 
gether exactly  at  the  middle  of  the  socket. 
Pipes  thus  jointed  will  bear  driving  down  into 
the  earth  by  a  heavy  ram  or  monkey.  The 
lower  end  of  the  bottom  pipe  is  shod  with  a 
cutting  edge  of  steel,  and  the  top  length  of 
pipe  is  protected,  during  the  operation  of 
driving,  by  a  heavy  cap. 

When  a  well  is  commenced,  it  is  very  usual 
to  begin  by  digging  a  pit  several  feet  deep. 
This  is  covered  in  with  a  stout  platform,  and 
through  a  hole  in  this  the 
boring  tools  are  worked. 

Should  the  first  stratum  be  cla}',  as  it  usu- 
ally is  in  London,  the  tool  employed  resembles 
a  huge  carpenter's  "  nose  bit,"  a  sort  of  open- 
sided  quill  of  sheet  metal  about  30"  or  40" 
in  length.  On  the  upper  end  is  screwed  the 
first  of  a  succession  of  rods  from  1"  to  2* 
square   with   threaded  ends.     These  rods  are 


Borins:  Tools. 


9  0 


338 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


ji) — ^    v^g 


'siib 


SOME    OF    THE    TOOLS    USED    IN    WELL    SINKING. 

A  and  B,  rod  tiller  for  rotating  boring  tools;  C,  a  T-chisel 
for  piercing  rock;    D,  a  clay  chise  . 

made  in  lengths  of  ten  feet,  and  are  turned 
by  means  of  long  "  tillers,"  or  handles,  clamped 
upon  the  square  part.  As  the  auger  fills  with 
clay  it  must  be  withdrawn — a  tedious  process, 
involving  the  unscrewing  of  the  rods  one  by 
one. 

When  rock  is  met  with,  the  auger  is  re- 
placed by  a  chisel  of  fiat  or  of  T  shape,  and 
the  operation  of  chiselling  is  carried  on  by 
wrapping  the  winding  rope  round  the  winch 
barrel  a  couple  of  turns.  The  loose  end  is 
hauled  by  hand,  causing  the  rope  to  grip  the 
rotating  barrel,  and  the  rods  and  chisel  are 
lifted  a  few  inches.  Then  the  rope  end  is 
released  suddenly,  and  the  chisel  falls  on  the 
rock  and  outs  it.  The  rods  are  rotated  slightly 
between  every  two  strokes,  so  that  the  chisel 
may  not  fall  twice  in  the  same  place.  The  side 
of  the  chisel  trims  the  hole  truly  circular. 
(Sometimes   a   circular   chisel  is  used,  to  cut 


cylindrical  cores  of  rock.  In  American  prac- 
tice the  tools  are  made  very  much  heavier  and 
the  derricks  are  much  more  lofty  than  is  usual 
in  England,  and  the  rods  are  lifted  and  dropped 
by  means  of  an  oscillating  beam  worked  by 
an  engine,  as  described  in  a  previous  article 
dealing  with  petroleum  wells  (vol.  ii.,  p.  321 
foil.).  Sometimes  in  place  of  rods,  which  take 
so  long  to  draw  up,  a  rope  is  used,  and  a  heavy 
string  of  tools  is  attached  to  it.  The  rope 
can  be  wound  up  rapidly  by  the  winch.  The 
string  of  tools  must  be  long,  so  as  to  bore 
a  straight  and  truly  vertical  hole  ;  for  if  a 
hole  goes  very  crooked,  progress  will  be  slower 
and  the  tendency  may  be,  and  sometimes  is, 
to  increase  the  crookedness  and  stop  progress, 
A  great  invention  was  the  method  of  boring 
with  diamonds.  In  this  system'  the  boring 
rods  are  of  iron  pipe,  and  the  boring  bit  is  a 


short  cylinder,  about  %"  to  ^'' 


The  Diamond 
Drill. 


thick,  having  a  few  diamonds 
set  round  its  lower  end.  The 
best  stones  for  the  purpose  are  Brazilian  car- 
bonadoes, or  black  diamonds.  The  holes  in 
which  they  are  set  are  drilled  into  the  edges 
and  end  of  the  crown,  and  cut  by  chisel  to 
fit  the  stones,  which  are  made  fast  by  burring 
over  the  soft  iron  of  the  crown.  Boring  is 
effected  by  rotating  the  crown  rapidly  upon 
the  rock,  a  copious  stream  of  water  pumped 
down  the  hollow  rods  washing  up  to  the  sur- 
face the  debris  through  the  annular  space 
between  rods  and  rock.  Diamond  crowns 
bore  their  way  several  feet  per  day  into  rocks 
so  hard  that  the  ordinary  chisel  cannot  ad- 
vance six  inches  in  the  same  time. 

Diamonds  were  first  used  by  a  man  named 
Leschot,  who  was  able  to  buy  them  for  about 
twelve  shillings  per  carat.  But  after  the  in- 
troduction of  the  diamond  drill  the  previ- 
ously almost  worthless  black 
diamonds  rose  steadily  in 
price  until,  ten  years  ago, 
they  reached  the  high  figure  of  £7  per  carat, 
and  diamond  drilling  became  too  costly      Out 


The  Calyx 
Drill. 


ARTESIAN    WELLS,    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE    BORED.     339 


of  the  general  struggle  to 

find    a    substitute     have 

emerged   two   successes — 

the   calyx    drill    and    the 

shot   drill.     In  the  calyx 

drill  a  crown  of  steel  with 

large    saw  -  like    teeth    is 

rotated  upon  the  rock.    It 

resists  the  turning  effort, 

applied  at  the  top  of  the 

rods,  for  part  of  a  turn  ; 

then     it     slips     suddenly 

under   the   torsion    strain 

of   the  rods.     This  rapid 

jumping    action    is    very 

effective    in    cutting    the 

rock,  and  gives  good  cores. 

The    calyx    drill    cannot, 

however,  penetrate  really 

hard  rock.     For  this  work 

^^^  the  shot  drill  proved   its 

^^     Hv  superior  fitness     Tlie  shot 

^w  ^m^-  boring  head  is  a  cylinder 

of    steel   slotted   upwards 

A  CALYX  DRILL.        in    the     end     at     several 

points.    Small  chilled  steel 

shot,  poured  down  the  hollow  rods  with  the 

water,  get   in    below   the   end   of   the  boring 

crown    by    way    of    the    slots 

and    are    rolled    between    the 

steel  head  and  the  rock.     The  curious  rolling 

action  breaks  up  the  rock,  and  the  debris  is 

washed  up.     Progress  is  as  rapid  as  with  the 

diamond,   and   the   cost   of   the   chilled   shot 

is   only  a  small  fraction  of  that  of   a  single 

diamond. 

That  such  work  can  be  done  by  small  chilled 
shot  may  seem  curious,  but  is  explicable  by 
a  sort  of  mathematical  reasoning.  In  mathe- 
matics a  point  hath  no  magni- 
tude. When  a  perfectly  hard 
sphere  rests  upon  a  perfectly  hard  plane  sur- 
face the  two  bodies  make  contact  at  a  mathe- 
matical point.  Now,  since  a  point  has  no 
area,   the   pressure   at   the   point   of   contact 


Its  Principle. 


must  be  infinite.  Even  the  weight  of  a  little 
chilled  shot  yV"  diameter  is  something,  and 
since  the  shot  rests  on  a  point  of  no  area, 
the  pressure  must  be  infinite.  In  shot  drill- 
ing we  do  not  get  mathematical  points  of 
contact,  nor  infinitely  hard  surfaces,  but  we 
are  able  to  place  a  heavy  pressure  on  the  small 
shot  which  roll  between  the  end  of  the  crown 
and  the  rock.  This  pressure  is  far  bej'^ond 
what  the  rock  can  withstand,  and  so  the  latter 
is  crushed  by  the  shot  and  the  particles  de- 
tached and  washed  away  The  next  little 
shot  rolls  over  the  clean  path  and  crushes  the 
surface  again  ;    and  so  the  work  goes  rapidly 

forward.     The  removal  of  the 

«;     .   J  u  Detaching 

core  IS  effected  by  pourmg  some 

grit  down  the  tubes  to  wedge 

the  core  against  the  walls  of   the  tube,  and 


A    GROUP   OF    WELL-SINKING   TOOLS,    ETC. 

A,  butt- jointed  pipes,  with  tapered  collar ;  B,  a  "  crow's-foot ;  " 
C  and  D,  latch  tools  for  getting  hold  of  broken  rods  and  pipes; 
E,  a  shot  drill,  showing  slot  by  which  the  steel  shot  gets  under 
the  bottom  of  the  drill ;  F,  circular  chisel  for  rock  work. 


340 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


hauling  upwards  with  the  steam  winch.  In 
some  cases  the  core  is  so  stubborn  that  hy- 
drauHc  jacks  have  to  be  requisitioned  to  break 
it  away  from  the  mother  rock.  A  core  15 
inches  or  so  in  diameter,  8  to   10  feet  long, 


materials,  but  so  severe  are  the  shocks  to 
which  it  is  subjected  that  it  is  small  wonder 
that  breakages  sometimes  occur.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  rescue 
a  broken  rod  from  a  depth  of  some  hundreds 


ARTESIAN    BOKKU    TUBE    WELL    AT    BUUKNE,    LINCOLNSHIRE.       iNTEKNAL 
DIAMETER,    13    INCHES  ;      DEPTH,    134    FEET. 

The  water  is  seen  issuing  from  the  well  at  the  rate  of  3,480  gallons  a  minute,  or 
5,011,200  gallons  per  day.     This  is  one  of  the  most  productive  wells  ever  bored. 

(Photo,  by  courtesy  of  llessrs.  O.  Isler  and  Co.) 


and  weighing  a  ton  and  upwards,  neces- 
sarily offers  considerable  resistance  by  reason 
of  its  great  weight,  apart  from  this  adhesive 
force. 


of   feet.      The  other  rods  are   let   down  with 
a  "  crow's  foot  "  attached  to 
the    end.     A    "  crow's    foot " 
is  a  tool  which  will  pass  down 


Retrieving- 
Broken  Tools. 


A  string  of  rods  and  tools  some  hundreds  of      a  bore  hole  of  a  given  size  when  this  is  occu- 
feet  in  length  may  bo  made  of  the  very  best      pied  by  a  rod.     It  is  first  tried  in  a  pipe  of 


ARTESIAN    WELLS,    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE    BORED.     341 


DANDO 


the  size  of  the  lining  tube  to 
see  if  it  is  of  a  suitable  size, 
and  is  then  lowered  down  the 
bore  -  hole  beyond  the  up- 
standing end  of  the  broken 
rod  and  past  the  first  joint. 
A  rotation  of  the  crow's  foot 
causes  it  to  grip  the  broken 
rod,  which  is  then  hauled  up. 
Sometimes  the  operation  is 
not  so  straightfo:ward,  for  the 
tools  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
broken  rods  may  become  set 
fast  by  grit  settling  round 
them.  Circular  tools  and  shell 
pumps  are  very  liable  to  be 
stuck  fast  by  such  gritty  sedi- 
ment, and  it  is  an  axiom 
with  well-borers  never  to  leave 
a  tool  at  rest  at  the  bottom 
of  a  hole,  but  always  to  draw  it  up  fifieen  or 
twenty  feet  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  region  of 
sediment.  Powerful  hydraulic  jacks  often  fail 
to  extract  such  "  stick-fasts."  Sometimes 
the  rods  are  pulled  apart  by  the  stress,  and 
breakdowns,  perhaps  tlu-ee 
deep,  are  piled  one  above 
another  in  a  narrow  bore- 
hole. As  a  last  resource  for 
dealing  with  a  hopeless  stick- 
fast,  dynamite,  or  some  other 
explosive,  is  used.     A  charge 

of      a      few 

pounds  of 
high  explosive  detonated  at 
the  bottom  of  a  bore-hole  will 
sometimes  blow  all  obstruc- 
tions into  the  sides  of  the 
hole,  and  allow  the  lining 
pipe  to  be  forced  down  past 
the  spot.  Explosives  are 
often  employed  also  to  make 
a  bore-hole  yield  a  better  sup- 
ply. It  may  happen  that  the 
hole  has  traversed  no  fissure, 


SAND    SCREEN    BELT. 
This  is  a  brass  cylinder  with  vertical  V  pIo's  cut  frcm  Ihe  inside.     The  point  of 
the  V  just  comes  through  th3  out-iid?  wall,  forming  a  mere  slit.     Water  has  the 
property  of  (lowing  fre3ly  through  a  slit  so  narrow  as  to  exclude  even  fine  sand. 


and  yields  but  little  water.  A  "  shot  "  may 
fracture  the  rock  through  to  some  fissure,  and 
make  a  passage  by  which  water  can  reach  the 
boring.  Such  shots  are  by  no  means  always 
successful. 


Explosives. 


WATER    GUSHING    FROM 


t\    WELL    AT    SLOriiH    .i  '    -      \     i  i  i:    smmkim, 
THE    GREENSAND. 
The  output  is  100,000  gallons  per  hour.     The  larg?  horizontal  bevel  wIum  I  in  lUo 
centre  is  driven  by  steam  to  revolve  the  tools. 

(Photo,  by  courtesy  of  Messrs.  C.  Islcr  and  Co.) 


342 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


A    DRILLING    RIG    AT    WORK. 

One  of  the  men  is  seen  turning  tbs  rods  by  means 
of  a  tiller. 


Other  salvage  operations  that  the  well- 
sinker  must  be  prepared  to  undertake  are  the 
unscrewing  of  rods  while  in  the  bore,  the  re- 
covery of  the  pipes,  and  the  cutting  off  of 
pipes  below  ground. 

For  the  first  of  these  he  uses  a  tool  with  a 
bell-shaped  end,  in  the  inside  of  which  is 
chased  a  left-handed  screw  thread.  This  tool 
is  attached  to  rods — which  also  have  left- 
handed  screw  joints — lowered  to  embrace  the 
top  of  the  uppermost  rod,  and  rotated  in  an 
anti-clockwise  direction.  The  bell  works  its 
way  on  to  the  rod,  and  when  the  resistance 
has  increased  to  a  certain  point  the  rod  un- 
screws from  that  next  to  it,  or  some  other 
joint  lower  down  gives,  and  the  released  rods 
can  be  drawn  up.  The  operation  is  repeated 
until  all  the  rods  have  been  retrieved. 

Instead  of  a  bell  a  "  latch  box,  '  with  spring 
catches  which  take  hold  of  a  joint,  may  be 


used.     The   same   tool   also   serves,    in   some 

cases,  for  rescuing  pipes.     An  alternative  is  a 

somewhat    similar    instrument 

which   grips  the   pipe   on   the       Rescuing 

Pipes. 

inside.     It  sometimes  happens 

that  the  well-sinker  is  in  doubt  as  to  what 
kind  of  an  end  there  is  to  take  hold  of.  He 
therefore  lets  down  on  the  end  of  a  rod  a 
socket  filled  with  stiff  clay  or  putty,  in  which 
an  impression  of  the  obstruction  is  obtained 
to  guide  the  devising  of  a  special  tool  to  deal 
with  the  case. 

To  sever  a  pipe  below  ground  requires  the 
use  of  a  pipe-cutter.     This  consists  of  a  piece 
of  piping  with  three  or  four  slots  cut  in  the 
circumference  at  right  angles 
to     the     axis.     Through    each    Cutting:  Pipes 

below  ground. 
slot    projects    a    sharp-edged 

disc  of  very  hard  steel,  carried  on  a  spring 
which  can  be  forced  outwards  by  means  of  a 
long  tapered  bar  pushed  down  inside  the  pipe. 
The  principle  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  ordi- 
nary pipe  expander.  The  discs  are  gradually 
forced  outwards  by  the  tapered  bar  as  the 
tool  revolves,  and  eat  their  way  into  the  pipe 
until  the  latter  has  been  completely  severed, 
and  can  be  raised  by  a  latch  tool. 

Occasionally  a  drill  crown  is  cut  through 
by  the  fragments  of  some  hard  substance 
which  fall  into  the  bore.  As  an  instance  of 
such  an  occurrence,  we  may  quote  what  hap- 
pened in  a  well  being  sunk  by  Messrs.  C.  Isler 
and  Co,  At  a  depth  of  848  feet  sharp  flints 
dropped  out  of  the  chalk  through  which  they 
were  boring,  and  cut  away  the  crown  as 
cleanly  as  if  it  had  been  turned  off  in  a  lathe. 
The  detached  crown  was  nearly  18"  in  diameter, 
and  I"  thick.  When  the  obstruction  had  been 
removed — this  operation  gave  a  great  deal  of 
trouble — boring  was  resumed.  The  same  mis- 
hap was  repeated  three  times,  and  in  one  case 
a  string  of  tools  over  20  feet  long  was  severed 
by  the  flints,  which  were  finally  checkmated 
by  means  of  a  temporary  lining  driven  down 
to  keep  them  in  their  natural  positions. 


ARTESIAN    WELLS,    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE    BORED.     343 


On  the  tools  so  far  enumerated  all  others 
are  more  or  less  modelled.  On  the  Continent, 
coal-pit  shafts  of  18  feet  inside  diameter  are 
bored  through  water-bearing  strata  by  means 
of  huge  combination  chisels  and  tools  re- 
sembling  those  used  for  well-sinking,  but,  of 
course,  very  much  larger.  The  lining  of  these 
shafts  consists  of  rings  of  cast-iron  tubbing 
lowered  from  the  surface,  ring  after  ring  being 
bolted  to  the  upper  end  of  the  topmost  tier. 
In  this  way  water-bearing  rocks  are  cut  through 
without  the  aid  of  pumps,  and  when  dry  rock 
is  reached  the 
lower  cutting 
edge  may  be 
sunk  into  it, 
or  a  water- 
tight joint  may 
be  made  on 
hard    rock    by 


DIVER    ABOUT    TO    DESCEND    A    WELL    TO    ADJUST    A     VALVI 
BELOW    WATER. 


means  of  a 
"  moss  box,"  a 
c  ontrivance 
whereby  a 
quantity  of 
moss  is  com- 
pressed upon 
the  rock  by  the 
weight  of  the 
cylinders.  The 
further  prog- 
ress of  the  shaft  through  the  dry  strata  nov/ 
reached  is  effected  by  the  ordinary  methods. 

In  America  an  artesian  basin  of  consider- 
able depth  occupies  a  good  part  of  the  State 
of  Dakota.     The  water-bearing  rock  is  a  sand- 
stone of  which  the  surface  out- 
rnencan       ^^        j^^^    along   the  foot-hills 
Wells. 

of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 

around  the  Black  Hills.  The  melting  snows, 
no  doubt,  furnish  much  of  the  water  which 
rises  with  so  much  force  in  the  numerous 
bored  wells  that  have  been  sunk  in  the  Dakota 
basin. 


The  earliest  discovery  was  made  in  1881 
in  the  James  River  valley  by  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  Railroad  Company. 
They  sunk  a  six-inch  well  to  a  depth  of  920 
feet,  and  it  flowed  at  the  rate  of  830  gallons 
per  minute.  To-day  there  are  hundreds  of 
artesian  wells  in  the  area  of  the  basin,  which 
measures  400  miles  north  and  south,  and  150 
miles  east  and  west.  The  wells  sers-e  vari- 
ously for  town  supply  and  for  irrigation,  but 
many  are  made  to  produce  power.  One  of 
the  chief  of  these  power  producers  is  situated 

atWoonsocket. 
It  is  775  feet 
deep  and  only 
7  inches  in  di- 
ameter, yet  it 
yields  over 
4,000  gallons  a 
minute.  When 
its  closing  valve 
is  shut,  the 
tatic  pressure 
uf  the  water 
is  165  pounds 
to  the  square 
inch.  This 
drops  to  62 
pounds  with  a 
4  -  inch  outlet 
and  75  pounds 
with  a  3-inch  outlet.  It  drives  a  roller  flour 
mill  by  means  of  a  3-foot  Pelton  wheel  run- 
ning at  275  revolutions  per  minute  with  a 
single  l|-incli  jet,  and  saves  £1,200  per 
annum  as  compared  Mith  equal  steam  power. 
Another  well  at  Springfield  is  593  feet  deep, 
with  an  8-inch  lining  tube  and  a  pressure  of 
130  pounds  per  square  inch.  This  drives  a 
flour  mill  by  means  of  a  16-foot  turbine  rotat- 
ing 800  times  per  minute,  and  grinds  eighty 
barrels  of  flour  per  day. 

At  Chamberlain,  where  the  sandstone  was 
loose,  and  possibly  the  casing  was  put  in 
somewhat  carelessly,  water  began  to  leak  up 


344 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


outside  the  8-incli  casing  pipe,  and  defied  all 
efforts  to  check  it.  Ultimately  the  heavy 
rush*  of  water  completely  ruined  the  well, 
which  had  finally  to  be  abandoned  as  un- 
manageable, being  left  to  flow  as  a  permanent 
spring. 

Overflowing  wells  will  always  occur  when 
a  water-bearing  rock  receives  rain  or  snow 
at  a  considerable  elevation,  and  dips  thence 
below  some  impermeable  stratum  up  through 
which  the  water  cannot  escape  as  a  natural 
spring.  When  such  an  artesian  basin  is  tapped 
by  many  wells,  these  much  diminish  the  stream 
flow  from  the  outcrop  or  other  point  of  drain- 
age. Ultimately  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  the  wells  reduces  the  head  of  water  in  tho 
rock,  and  diminishes  the  flow.  London,  a 
comparatively  small  basin  of  limited  outcrop 
areas,  is  a  striking  example  of  this  process. 
Not  a  single  well  now  overflows  to  the  north 
of  the  Thames  within  several  miles  of  the 
river,  so  great  has  been  the  pumping  draught 
of  the  many  wells  over  the  Metropolitan  area  ; 
and  the  once  overflowing  wells  south  of  the 
river  have  now  all  to  be  pumped. 

Great  as  is  the  importance  of  a  good  water 
supply  in  a  country  blessed,  as  England  is, 
with  a  good  annual  rainfall,  it  is  doubly  great 


Australian 
Wells. 


PUMPING    FROM    AN    ARTESIAN     WELL. 


in  a  region  where,  during  part  of  the  year, 
rivers  and  streams  dry  up,  and  at  the  best 
only  a  few  pools  remain.  In 
a  previous  article  (vol.  ii.,  p. 
312  foil.)  have  been  noticed  the 
artesian  wells  of  Australia,  which  are  as  re- 
markable for  their  depth  as  for  their  produc- 
tiveness. The  latter  quality  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  overflow  naturally.  The  aver- 
age yield  is  about  700,000  gallons  a  day. 
The  deepest  bore-hole  in  the  country,  that  at 
Bimerah,  goes  down  5,046  feet,  or  nearly  a 
mile. 

Only  those  who  have  actually  bored  an 
artesian  well  in  a  thirsty  land  can  appreciate 
the  importance  of  the  work,  and  the  \\dde- 
spread  interest  aroused  by  it.  Steadily  the 
long  line  of  tools  eats  its  way  down  into  the 
ground  ;  slowly  rises  the  debris  detached. 
Five  hundred  feet  are  pierced,  but  still  no 
sign  of  water.  A  thousand  feet,  and  only  dry 
rock.  But  the  engineer  does  not  lose  heart, 
knowing  that  if  only  he  perseveres  the  chances 
are  heavily  in  his  favour.  A  depth  of  1,500 
feet  is  at  last  reached.  How  much  further 
will  the  hard  dry  shale  continue  ?  At  last 
the  experienced  workman  becomes  conscious 
of  a  change.  He  feels  that  he  is  in  another 
kind  of  rock.  Water  creeps 
sluggishly  up  the  bore-hole,  and 
dribbles  over  the  protector  flange 
of  the  lining  tube — the  first  sign 
of  success.  The  men,  greatly 
encouraged,  work  on,  and  the 
water-flow  gains  strength.  The 
dribble  is  replaced  by  a  foun- 
tain, 2,  3,  4,  5,  6  inches  high, 
darkened  by  the  muddy  debris. 
The  advance  becomes  more  and 
more  rapid,  and  in  due  course 
an  8-inch  jet  rises  3  clear  feet 
above  the  top  of  the  tubing. 
Now  for  a  test.  A  500-gallon 
tank  is  filled  in  one  minute. 
Multiply  that  quantity  by  1,440, 


ARTESIAN    WELLS,    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE    BORED.     345 


The  Air  Lift. 


and  the  total  daily  flow  is  ascertained — 720,000 
gallons — quite  a  nice  little  river,  which  will 
slake  the  thirst  of  thousands  of  sheep,  cattle, 
and  horses,  and  enable  many  stock  owners  to 
weather  a  severe  drought ;  for  the  subterranean 
sources  of  supply  are  affected  not  at  all  by  the 
lack  of  rain  in  the  district  which  they  supply. 
Until  the  engineer  came  along  with  his  tools 
inexhaustible  supplies  flowed  within  a  few 
hundred  yards  of  doomed  flocks,  to  escape 
perhaps  to  the  ocean  bed  somewhere  in  the 
Great  Bight.  Now  this  bad  state  of  things 
has  been  removed  in  great  part  by  the  steel 
tubes  which  connect  the  pent-up  subterranean 
reservoirs  with  the  upper  world. 

One  of  the  principal  defects  of  a  bore-hole 
from  which  the  water  does  not  flow  naturally 
is  that  the  water  supply  to  be  obtained  from  it 
is  limited,  not  by  the  diameter 
of  the  bore-hole,  but  by  the 
capacity  of  the  pump  that  can  be  put  inside 
it.  Thus  a  6-inch  hole,  170  feet  deep,  with 
its  water  supply  coming  all  the  way  from  the 
bottom  of  this  length  of  bore,  will  deliver 
500  gallons  per  minute  under  a  head  of  10  feet. 
That  is  to  say,  if  the  water  would  rise  to 
13  feet  over  the  surface,  and  the  lining  pipe 
be  cut  off  at  3  feet  above  the  surface,  it  will 
yield  the  above  amount.  But  inside  a  6-inch 
pipe  the  largest  practicable  pump  is  only 
about  5  inches  diameter,  and  its  yield  would  not 
exceed  2,000  gallons  per  hour  when  worked 
comfortably.  Unless  a  well  can  be  pumped 
from  the  surface,  its  supply  is  thus  much 
curtailed.  But  when  the  water-level  is  not 
too  far  below  the  surface  in  comparison  with 
the  total  depth  of  the  well,  a  very  full  yield 
can  be  obtained  by  means  of  compressed  air. 
To  carry  this  out,  the  rising  main  is  inserted 
down  the  bore-hole  to  about  three  times  the 
distance  which  the  water-level  stands  below 
the  surface,  or  is  likely  to  stand  when  the 
pumping  is  in  operation  at  a  given  rate  previ- 
ously fixed  as  the  result  of  a  pumping  test. 


DIAGRAM  TO  SHOW  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  AIR 
LIFT  "  APPARATUS  USED  FOR  RAISING  WATER 
WHERE    PUMPING    IS    IMPRACTICABLE. 

{By  permission  of  Messrs.  C.  Isler  and  Co.) 

Sometimes  the  rising  main  stands  inside  a 
slightly  larger  air  pipe,  and  sometimes  the  air 
supply  pipe  passes  down  inside  the  rising 
main,  or  it  is  carried  down  as  a  separate  small 
pipe  alongside  of  it.  (See  illustration.)  The 
lower  end  of  the  air  pipe  opens  by  one  or 
more  openings  into  the  foot  of  the  rising  main. 
When  air  is  pumped  down  it  escapes  into  the 
rising  main,  and  converts  the  whole  column 
of  water  into  foam  or  into  an  alternation  of 
water  and  plugs  of  air.  The  result  is  that 
there  is  less  water  in  the  rising  main  from  its 
foot-piece  to  its  surface  outlet  than  there  is 
between  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  bore- 
hole and  the  foot  of  the  rising  main.  Thus 
the  external  column  exerts  a  greater  pressure 
than  the  internal  aerated  column,  and  the  result 
is  that  the  water  flows  continuously  into  the 
foot  of  the  main,  is  aerated,  and  rises  to  the 
point  of  discharge.  Obviously,  if  the  water-level 
is  far  below  the  surface,  the  total  depth  of  the 


346 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


bore-hole  must  be  very  considerable — greater 
than  necessary  merely  to  reach  the  water. 

One  of  the  disadvantages  of  the  air  lift  is 

that  it  involves  excessive  first  cost  under  such 

circumstances.     Then   again,   if   much   of  the 

yield  of  water  comes  into  the 

Disadvantages  '^^^^y    ^^ove    the    level    of    the 

.  .        .  rising  main,  it  must  first  find 

Advantages.  ® 

its  way  down  the  annular 
space  between  the  rising  main  and  the  bore- 
hole well.  This  limits  the  outside  diameter 
of  the  main  to  such  a  size  as  will  not  unduly 


restrict  the  downward  passage  of  the  water. 
A  compromise  must  be  made  to  suit  such  a 
case.  To  the  credit  of  the  air  lift  are  the 
following  facts  :  That  it  can  be  w^orked  from 
a  central  point  at  any  reasonable  distance  ; 
that  a  great  output  can  be  got  from  a  bore- 
hole if  water  be  present  in  sufficient  quantities  ; 
that  there  are  no  moving  parts  down  in  the 
bore-hole  to  get  out  of  order  ;  and  that  water 
carrying  sand  and  other  abrasive  substances, 
which  would  make  the  use  of  an  ordinary 
pump  impossible,  can  be  dealt  with. 


A    PRODUCTIVE    WELL    (AUSTRALIA). 


w  m 


THE    STATION    AT    HALLINGSKEID. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION   OF  THE 
BERGEN-KRISTIANIA    RAILWAY. 

BY    R.    H.    UHLAND. 


This  railway,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  but  recently  opened  for  traffic,  is 
a  marvel  of  engineering-,  as  its  construction  was  accompanied  by  climatic 
conditions  such  as  railway  builders  seldom  have  to  face.  It  is  certainly 
one  of  the  most  wonderful  of  all  European  adhesion  railways. 


THIS  year  will  be  completed  one  of  the 
most  interesting  railways  in  the 
world — that  putting  Bergen,  Nor- 
way's greatest  commercial  centre,  in  direct 
land  communication  with  Kristiania,  the  Nor- 
wegian capital.  The  railway  is  only  305  miles 
long,  but  the  difficulties  encountered  in  its 
construction  make  it  as  notable  from  an 
engineering  point  of  view  as  the  wildness  of 
the    country    through    which    it    passes    will 


render  it  invaluable  to  the  tourist  in  search 
of  Norway's  finest  scenery. 

The  accompanying  sketch  map  (p.  348)  shows 
the  route  followed  by  this  remarkable  rail- 
way. From  Kristiania  northwards  to  Roa  it 
uses   the   metals   of   the   rail- 


The  Route  of 
the  Railway. 


way    running   to    Gjovik.     At 

Roa  it  turns  south-westwards 

to  Honefoss,   and  thence   north-vest  wards  to 

Gulsvik  near  the  head  of  Lake  Kroderen.     Tliis 


348 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


section  is  not  yet  completed  ;  but  already 
trains  run  bet  wee  a  Gulsvik — which  at  present 
is  reached  from  Kristiania  by  a  rail  journey 
via  Drammen  and  Vikesund,  and  a  steamboat 
trip  along  the  lake — and  Bergen.  The  central 
section — Gulsvik  to  Vossevangen,  or  Voss — 
opened  in  1907,  demands  most  attention,  as 
it  crosses  the  great  water-shed  of  the  Lang 
Mountains,  passing  through  some  of  the  wildest 
mountain  tracts  in  Norway,  far  above  the 
tree  limit,  in  the  region  of  eternal  snow.  As 
regards  the  greatest  elevation  attained— 4,2C8 
feet  at  Taugevand— the  railway  is  surpassed 
in  Europe  by  the  Brenner  Pass  and  Arlberg 
routes,  and  in  America  by  several  trans- 
continental railways.  But  it  should  be  pointed 
out  that  even  the  Southern  Pacific  crossing  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  with  its  maximum  elevation 
of  about  8,200  feet,  does  not 
rise  above  the  level  at  which 
firs,  the  hardiest  of  trees,  cease 
to  occur ;  whereas  the  Bergen 
railway,  owing  to  its  much 
more  northerly  latitude,  leaves  trees  behind 
at  an  elevation  o:  about  2,000  feet.  The 
extreme   severitv  of  the  winters,  which  cover 


Elevation 

compared  with 

that  of  other 

Railways. 


the  country  with  a  thick  blanket  of  fine  hard 
snow,  packed  tightly  into  every  hollow  and 
crevice  by  violent  gales,  rendered  the  con- 
struction of  the  railway,  especially  at  the 
higher  altitudes,  a  very  difficult  task  indeed. 
In  the  mountains  snow  falls  even  in  June, 
and  during  a  cold  summer  the  snowdrifts  and 
the  ice  covering  the  lakes  do  not  melt  at  all. 
In  laying  the  line,  however,  the  engineers  were 
careful  to  raise  the  road-bed,  where  possible, 
above  the  general  level  of  the  ground,  so  that 
the  winds  might  assist  in  the  task  of  keeping 
it  free  from  snow.  For  12|  miles  the  moun- 
tain section  of  the  line  has  been  covered  in 
with  snow-sheds,  and  28  more  miles  are  shel- 
tered by  snow-screens.  The  section  is  only 
62  miles  long,  so  that  if  the  9  J  miles  of  tunnel 
also  be  deducted,  it  becomes  evident  that  only 
a  very  small  proportion  of  this  section  is  left 
entirely  unprotected. 

As  long  ago  as  1870  a  scheme  was  put 
forward  for  running  a  railway  across  the 
"  Great  Mountain."  At  that 
time  the  sea  afforded  the  only 
means  of  communication  between  Bergen  and 
Kristiania.     Not  even  the  roughest  of  roads 


Early  History. 


MAP   OF    THE    BERGEN-KRISTIANIA    RAILWAY. 

The  section  between  Gulsvik  f  nd  Roa  will  be  opened  this  year. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    i3EKGEN-KlU8TlANlA    RAILWAY.     349 


crossed  the  plateau  ;  in  fact,  the 
high  ground  was  practically  an  un- 
explored region,  inhabited  during  a 
few  months  of  the  year  by  but  a 
few  herdsmen.  As  a  first  instal- 
ment, the  Storthing  voted,  in  1875, 
the  necessary  money  for  building  a 
narrow-gauge  railway  from  Bergen 
to  Vossevangan ;  and  this  line, 
which  required  some  clever  if  not 
difficult  engineering,  was  opened 
for  traffic  in  1883.  While  it  was 
building,  a  survey  of  the  mountains 
beyond  and  observations  of  the 
snowfall  were  begun,  in  anticipation 
of  the  time  when  an  extension 
eastwards  of  Voss  should  be  de 
manded.  In  1876  the  preliminary 
survey  was  completed,  and  next 
year  appeared  a  first  estimate  of  the 
cost.  During  the  six  years  1884-89 
regular  snow  measurements  were 
taken  b}^  peasants  acquainted  with 
the  mountain  districts.  To  assist 
them  the  State  engineers  erected 
at  suitable  intervals,  on  masonry 
bases,  long  poles,  all  duly  numbered, 
from  which  the  depth  of  the  snow- 
fall could  be  ascertained. 

After  nineteen  years  of  surveying 
and  deliberation,  the  route  was  more  or  less 
definitely  fixed  to  pass  from  Voss  up  the  Raun 
Valley  to  the  Urhovde  mountain,  through  which 
a  tunnel  would  be  driven  to  Myrdal  on  the 
eastern  side — on  to  the  "  divide  "  at  Tauge- 
vand  Lake,  and  thence  through  the  Finse 
Valley  past  the  Uste  Lake  to  low  ground  at 
Gulsvik,  which  point  would  act  as  a  temporary 
termiims  while  the  last  section  to  Roa  was 
being  completed. 

A  grant  for  the  Voss-Taugevand  section  was 
made  in  1894,  and  in  the  following  year  began 
the  setting  out  of  the  Une,  which  included  the 
fixing  of  the  axis  of  the  great  Gravehals  or 
Urhovde  tunnel,  5,800  yards  in  length,  by  far 


The  Moun- 
tain Section 
surveyed. 


THE    BERUf^N    KAIL  WAY    BETWEEN    OPSET    AND    VOSS. 
A    SUMMER    VIEW. 


the  longest  of  the  178  tunnels  which  occur  on 
the  Bergen-Kristiania  railway.  This  work  oc- 
cupied six  years,  being  greatly 
hindered  by  the  intense  cold 
and  the  exceedingly  difficult 
character  of  the  country,  which 
made  it  necessary  in  places  for  the  surveyors 
to  be  suspended  by  ropes  over  the  edge  of 
precipices  while  making  their  observations. 

As  the  Gravehals  tunnel  would  have  to  be 
pierced  from  both  ends  simultaneously,  and 
the  mountain  interposed  an  obstacle  over 
which  a  transport  road  could  not  be  carried, 
the  engineers  constructed  a  road  up  from 
Voss  to  Opset    at    the    western    portal,    and 


A    ROTARY    AT    WORK,    I'LriiiKD    BY    THREE    LOCOMOTIVES. 
A    SNOW-PLOUGH    ABOUT    TO    ENTER    A    SNOW-SHED. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    BERGEN-KRTSTIANLv     i;AiL\VA^       :r,l 


Building- 
Transport 
Roads. 


another  southwards  from  the  Sogne 
]''jord  up  the  Flaam  Valley  to 
Myrdal  at  the  east- 
ern end.  This  latter 
road  was  eventually 
continued  right  a- 
long  the  line  of  the  railway  to 
Gulsvik,  to  supply  the  construction 
gangs  with  provisions  and  mate- 
rials. The  making  of  these  roads 
as  a  preliminary  to  the  actual 
building  of  the  track  was  a  some- 
what arduous  business,  but  one 
which  could  not  be  shirked,  as  on 
the  roads,  until  the  Gravehals 
tunnel  should  have  been  pierced, 
the  men  on  the  mountain  sections 
east  of  MjTdal  were  entirely  de- 
pendent. Simultaneously  with  the 
roads,  telegraph  and  telephone  linos 
were  carried  up-country  ;  and  bar- 
racks were  built  for  the  workmen 
out  of  materials  transported  over 
the  heaviest  gradients  by  means  of 
cableways. 

The  principle  adopted  was  to 
work  hard  on  the  roads  during 
the  short  summer,  and  to  erect 
barracks  and  furnish  them  with 
stores  at  points  where  tunnelling 
had  to  be  done,  as  this  work  could  be  con- 
tinued through  the  winter  after  the  roads 
had  become  snow-blocked  and 
nothing  more  could  be  done 
in  the  open.  While  one  sec- 
tion of  road  was  in  course  of  construction, 
the  «urveyors  were  marking  out  the  section 
next  ahead.  In  1901  road  building  was 
started  on  the  Hallingsdal  or  eastern  side 
of  the  mountains,  and  also  on  the  lower 
lying  ground  towards  Gulsvik  By  September 
1902  a  cart  could  be  driven  from  the  head  of 
the  Sogne  Fjord  to  Ustevand.  As  soon  as  a 
barrack  was  finished  it  was  filled  with  labourers. 
Eventually,  at  great  expense,  and  after  over- 


The  Roads 
completed. 


ENTRANCE    TO    A    TUNNEL    NEAR    MYRDAL. 

The  short  snow-shed  seen  is  to  prevent  the  entrance  being  blocked  by 
snow-slides.     In  the  foreground  is  a  snow-fence. 


coming  many  difficulties,  the  engineers  com- 
pleted the  roadway  and  electrical  means  of 
communication. 

The  transport  roads  finished,  materials  were 
brought  up  in  bulk,  and  it  became  possible 
to  construct  some  of  the  permanent  station 
buildings  to  serve  temporarily  as  homes  for 
the  staff.  Each  station  had  its  storehouse 
and.  bakehouse,  the  first  well  stocked  during 
the  summer  with  clothes,  tools,  tinned  goods 
of  all  kinds,  flour,  and  potatoes.  To  avoid 
the  need  for  laying  in  large  quantities  of 
wood  against  the  winter  to  run  the  bake- 
houses, the  bread  was  baked  in  large  batches 
as    soon    as    the    cold    weather    set    in,    and 


352 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


SNOW    PROTECTION    AGAINST    VERTICAL    SNOW    FALL. 


Climatic 
Obstacles. 


kept  in  good  condition  by  being  allowed  to 
freeze. 

For  two  periods  of  the  year  the  working 
parties  were  entirely  cut  off  from  outside — 
while  the  snow  fell  most  thickly,  in  November 

and    December,   and   while   it 

thawed  in  the  early  summer. 

During  the  wdnter  proper  it 
was  possible  to  get  a  limited  quantity  of 
goods  up  from  the  sea  on  pack  horses,  which, 
following  one  behind  another,  trampled  a 
narrow,  hard  track  in  the  snow. 

Open-air  work   was   continued  as  far  into 

the    autumn   as    the   weather 

Winter  Work  permitted.    Then  the  majority 
m  the  „    , 

Tunnels  ®  navvies  sought  the  low- 

lying  districts,  where  work  was 
still  possible.  Only  sufficient  remained  behind 
to   continue   the   tunnel  work,   which  in   the 


longer  tunnels  never  ceased  day  or  night 
until  completion.  As  debris  could  not  be 
removed  beyond  a  tunnel's  mouth  while  the 
snow  was  still  falling  outside,  the  tunnel  itself 
had  to  serve  as  dumping  ground  until  after 
the  thaw  had  begun.  Consequently  the  force 
of  men  was  so  proportioned  that  the  amount 
of  material  which  they  would  be  able  to 
excavate  should  not  unduly  block  the  tunnel. 
In  one  of  the  longer  bores  the  accumulations 
of  a  winter's  work  would  amount  to  several 
thousand  cubic  yards.  When  the  time  arrived 
for  moving  the  debris  the  men  proceeded  to 
dig  a  tunnel  through  the  snow.  Sometimes 
this  tunnel  would  have  to  be  considerably 
over  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  and  its  con- 
struction, even  with  continuous  work,  would 
occupy  two  or  three  weeks.  So  tightly  was 
the  snow  packed  in  the  drifts  that  dynamite 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    BERGEN-KRISTIANIA    RA1L\VA\       X53 


A    PEEP    INTO    A    SNOW    PROTECTION. 


liad  to  be  used  to  shift  it,  the  snow  coming 
away  in  hard  blocks  just  as  if  it  were  so  much 
rock. 

When  at  last  the  way  was  open,  the  men  had 
to  dig  paths  to  the  dumping  grounds  and  clear 
them  of  snow— if  the  material  was  required  for 
the  formation  of  embankments— as  snow  cov- 
ered with  earth  or  stone  w  ould  thaw  so  slowly 
that  one  summer's  heat  would  not  remove  it. 
In  April  and  May  some  of  the  summer  gangs 
were  engaged.  Their  first  duty  was  to  clear 
the  approaches  to  the  many  long  cuttings  in 
the  rock,  so  that  work  might 
be  begun  upon  them  at  the 
earliest  possible  moment.  Had 
the  engineers  waited  for  the 
natural  removal  of  the  snow  by  thaw,  the 
mountain  section  would  have  occupied  several 
more  years  than  it  did.     This  shovelling  work 

(1,408) 


Clearing' 
Snow  from 
Cuttings. 


was   at   times   very   irksome    and   apparently 

useless,  for  over  and  over  again  a  fall  would 

refill   a   partly    cleared    cutting.     Where    the 

drifts  were  exceptionally  deep — in  some  cases 

they    measured     60    feet    vertically — tunnels 

were    driven    through    them    to    the    working 

faces. 

By  midsummer's  day,  or  a  little  later,  the 

transport  road  became  practicable  for  wheeled 

traffic,  and  the  materials  collected  in  advance 

on      the     Sogne     Fjord     were    „.  ,   „, 

u         x^  -D      1         A      f    High  Wages. 

brought   up.     By   the   end   or 

July  the  working  parties  were  at  full  strength, 
two  thousand  men  all  told  being  housed  in  the 
barracks.  Only  the  hardiest  men  would  en- 
gage for  the  mountain  sections,  as  the  climate, 
even  in  the  summer,  could  be  far  from  genial, 
and  there  were  few  recreations  with  which 
to  vary  the  monotony  of  labour.  Also,  the 
23  ^•">I..   in. 


NEAR    KLEIVA    LAKE,    EAST    OF    IMYRDAL. 

PASSAGE    CLEARED    THROUGH    A    O-FOOT    DRIFT    NEAR    TAU6EVAND. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    BERGEN-KRTSTIANIA    RATTAVAY.     355 


The 

Gravehals 

Tunnel. 


men  were  not  allowed  to  bring  their  families 
into  the  mountains.  But  by  way  of  com- 
pensation the  wages  were  high  ;  and  as  few 
opportunities  of  spending  money  occurred, 
those  men  who  kept  to  the  mountain  work 
for  several  years  were  able  to  amass  a  very 
considerable  sum. 

The  Gravehals  tunnel  is  notable  not  only  on 
account  of  its  great  length — 17,421  feet — but 
because  its  construction  was  attended  by  the 
great  difficulties  caused  by  the 
great  distance  from  a  base  of 
supplies,  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  workmen  were  entirely 
isolated  during  several  months  of  the  year. 
In  fact,  this  may  be  considered  one  of  the 
most  arduous  pieces  of  tunnelling  ever  accom- 
plished, and  worthy  to  rank  beside  the  far 
longer  Alpine  tunnels  which  formed  the  subject 
of  a  previous  article. 

Excavation    was    begun    in    1895,    after    a 
water-power     station     had    been    erected    at 
each   end   to    drive    the    pneumatic    and   hy- 
draulic    drills     used     in     the 
Italian         Myrdal    and    Opset    headings 

.    .       respectively.       As     the     con- 
imported.  ^  '^ 

tractors  could  not  obtain  a 
sufficiency  of  native  workmen  accustomed  to 
machine  drilling,  they  imported,  in  1900,  fifty 
Italian  miners  who  were  experienced  in  this 
kind  of  work.  Unfortunately,  the  rock  en- 
countered was  so  much  harder  than  that 
previously  mined  by  the  Italians  that  events 
proved  one  Norwegian  to  be  worth  two 
southerners  So  when  the  Norwegians  had 
learned  the  technique  of  the  drills  thoroughly 
the  foreigners  were  packed  off  home  again. 

During  the  winter  1902-3  the  tunnellers  at 
the  eastern  end  had  a  very  bad  time.  For 
two  and  a  half  months  all  communication 
with  the  outside  world  was  cut 
off.  Stores  gave  out,  and  coal 
and  wood  had  to  be  doled  out  in  meagre 
rations.  Things  looked  so  bad  that  there 
was  serious  thought  of  abandoning  the  work 


for  the  seavSon  and  beating  a  retreat.  But 
luckily,  before  such  a  course  became  necessary, 
the  headings  met,  and  bread  was  brought 
through  from  Opset. 

On  some  of  the  stormiest  days  of  this 
winter  the  wind  velocity  exceeded  the  maxi- 
mum which  the  anemometer  could  record — 
90  miles  an  hour      One  of  the 

houses  in  which  the  men  lived     „.    "^^ 

,      ,  ,  Blockades. 

was  completely  covered  up — 

all  but  the  chimney — by  the  snow,  and  could 
be  reached  only  through  a  snow  tunnel  of 
considerable  length.  This  turmel  was  oft«n 
blocked  during  the  night  by  a  snowstorm. 
Consequently,  when  the  night-shift  came  off 
duty  they  had  to  shout  down  the  chimney, 
and  obtain  the  assistance  of  those  inside  to 
dig  a  way  through.  In  such  circumstances  it 
is  not  strange  that  the  men  should  have  found 
their  work  unattractive.  Even  when  travel 
was  possible  it  was  not  free  from  danger. 
Tlie  way  could  easily  be  lost  at  night  or 
during  a  snowstorm.  The  telephone  line,  if 
struck,  could  be  made  to  serve  as  a  guide  by 
throwing  a  piece  of  string  over  the  wire  and 
drawing  it  along  to  the  next  post,  where  it 
had  to  be  released  and  flung  over  the  succeed- 
ing span.  On  one  occasion  a  paymaster  and 
his  guide  were  lost  in  a  storm  and  frozen  to 
death. 

In  spite  of  all  obstacles  the  tunnel  was 
completed,  after  twelve  years  of  incessant 
labour,  in  1906.  The  rock  blasting  consumed 
495,000  lbs.  of  dynamite  and 


The  Tunnel 
completed. 


Hard  Times. 


310  miles  of  fuse,  and  required 
the  drilling  of  350,000  holes, 
with  an  aggregate  depth  of  217  miles.  A 
further  million  pounds  of  dynamite  were  ex- 
pended on  the  other  numerous  tunnels  and 
on  the  cuttings,  from  which  about  2,400,000 
cubic  yards  of  rock  and  earth  were  removed. 

The  track  is  of  standard  gauge  (4  feet 
Sh  inches)  throughout,  the  original  narrow 
gauge  track  between  Voss  and  Bergen  having 
been  changed  to  standard   during    the  years 


356 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Snow- 
Ploughs. 


1898-1904,  in  order  to  obviate  transhipment 
at  the  former  place.  The  rolling  stock  includes 
two  rotary  snow-ploughs  (see 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  240-245),  built 
in  Norway  on  the  American 
model.  They  cost  about  £4,500  a-piece,  and 
are  fitted  with  engines  of  1,000  horse-power 
to  revolve  the  great  shovel  wheel.  Two 
pusher  locomotives  are  able  to  propel  a  plough 
through  the  deepest  drift.  Thanks  to  the 
efficiency  of  these  wonderful  devices,  the  line 
was  worked  regularly  throughout  the  winter 
of  1897-98.  The  ploughs  are  assisted  in  their 
work  by  a  system  of  screens  arranged  on  either 
side  of  the  track  square  to  the  direction  of  the 
prevailing  winds.  The  snow  accumulates  be- 
hind the  screens  until  a  deep  drift  has  been 
formed,  and  then  the  screens  are  moved  a 
bit  nearer  the  track.  In  this  way  the  depth 
of  the  drifts  over  the  rails  is  kept  within 
such  compass  as  the  ploughs  can  deal  with. 


The  only  satisfactory  way  of  obtaining  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  real  nature  of  the  en- 
gineering   triumph    won    by    the    Norwegian 
engineers   responsible   for   the 
construction   of   this   wonder-  j,^*  ^^^ 

ful  line  is  to  traverse  the  line 
itself  in  one  of  the  extremely  comfortable 
observation  cars  which  are  at  the  disposal  of 
tourists.  The  views  to  be  obtained  from  the 
carriage  window  when  passing  between  the 
great  mountains  of  Hallingskarvet  and  the 
glacier  on  Hardangerjokelen  are  such  as  prob- 
ably cannot  be  equalled  on  any  other  railway 
in  the  world.  In  the  course  of  a  single  summer 
day  the  traveller  is  able  to  enjoy  the  great 
contrasts  afforded  by  the  flat  landscape  of 
the  eastern  country,  the  wild  solitudes  and 
wide  prospects  of  the  mountains,  and  the 
perpendicular  cliffs  and  deep  fjords  which  he 
passes  between  Voss  and  the  western  ter- 
minus. 


A    VIEW    IN    BERGEN. 


BY    CHARLES    BRIGHT,    F.R.S.(Edm.),    M.I.E.E. 


CONSTRUCTION. 

THE  important  part  played  by  sub- 
marine telegraphs  throughout  the 
civilized  world  centres  itself  in  the 
electrical  conductor,  the  rest  of  the  cable 
serving  merely  to  render  the 
conductor  lastingly  effective 
in  its  object  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea. 

For  the  conduction  of  electricity,  whether 
for  telegraphic  or  other  purposes,  this  all- 
important  wire  is  composed  of  the  purest 
possible  copper.     Where  considerable  distances 


The 

Conductor. 


O 


fig.  1. — types  of  electrical  conductors 
(actual  size). 

have  to  be  electrically  spanned,  a  solid  wire 
of  the  required  dimensions  is  too  rigid,  so 
the  conductor  is  made  up  from  a  number  of 
comparatively   small   wires   laid   up   into   the 


form  of  a  strand  of  the  necessary  total  dimen- 
sions.* On  the  other  hand,  for  connecting 
points  over,  say,  750  miles  apart,  the  central 
wire  is,  as  a  rule,  substantially  larger  than 
those  surrounding  it,  with  a  view  to  increasing 
the  conducting  properties  of  the  line. 

This  is  necessary  in  order  to  meet  speed 
requirements  by  compensating  for  the  con- 
siderable length  entailed,  seeing  that  the  rat© 
at  which  electrical  signals  can  be  transmitted 
tlu"ough  a  cable  varies  inversely  with  the 
square  of  the  length,  in  addition  to  being  de- 
pendent on  the  type  of  conductor  and  its 
insulating  envelope.  In  the  same  way,  for 
still  greater  lengths  a  conductor  with  strips 
of  copper  outside  a  large  solid  wire  has 
recently  been  resorted  to. 

Stranding  the  several  wh-es  together  is 
effected  by  a  vertical  rope-making  machine. 
Motive  power  is  transmitted  to  this  machine 

*  The  total  diameter  of  a  submarine  cable  conductor  varies 
from  about  069  to  -204  of  an  inch,  according  to  the  length 
and  working  spt>ed  requirements. 


358 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Fig. 


2. — STRANDING 
MACHINE. 


From  C  the  wire  is  threaded 
through  the  die  -  plate  G, 
v^  here  it  is  enveloped  by  the 
outer  wires.  The  latter  are 
worked  on  bobbins,  D, 
mounted  on  a  horizontal 
turn-table  revolving  with  tho 
shaft  C.  These  wires  are 
conveyed  from  their  indi- 
vidual bobbins  through  the 
two  dies  F  and  G  in  turn, 
where  they  meet  tho  centre 
wire,  and  are  laid  round  it 
in  more  or  less  elongatetl 
spirals.  The  number  of  these 
bobbins  obviously  depends 
on  the  number  of  outer 
wires  composing  the  strand.  The  so  stranded  wire  is  con- 
veyed by  means  of  a  pulley  to  a  measuring  drum,  and  thence 
on  to  a  carrying  reel,  which,  when  fully  loaded,  is  taken  off 
tho  machine  and  replaced  by  another. 


from  a  steam  or  other  available  engine,  the 
wire  being  stranded  up  in  about  2-mile  lengths, 
as  a  rule.* 

Water  being  a  good  conductor  of  electricity, 
the  copper  wire  has  to  be  covered 
with  some  substance  wliioh  is  a  bad 
conducting  or  insulating 
medium,  to  prevent  much 
of  the  transmitted  cur- 
rent leaking  to  earth,  instead  of  going 
to  the  farther  end  of  the  line.  Gutta- 
percha is  found  to  be  peculiarly  well 
adapted  to  the  purpose,  its  insulating 
qualities  improving  immensely  under 
the  pressure  and  low  temperature  of 
ocean  depths. f 

Gutta-percha  is  obtained  from  certain 
sapotaceous,  wild  -  growing  East  Indian 
trees,  from  which  it  exudes  when  an 
incision  is  made  in  the   bark.     It  arrives 


this  country  in  crude  lumps,  which  are 
thereupon  subjected  to  a  series  of  cleans- 
ing processes  before  application  round  the 
conducting  wire.  A  highly  satisfactory 
machine,  devised  by  the  late  Mr.  Matthew 
Gray,  for  applying  the  purified  gutta-percha, 
is  depicted  in  Fig.  3. 

With  this  apparatus  several  wires  may  be 
covered  at  once.  They  are  hauled  off  their 
respective  hanks  through  the  die-box,  con- 
taining dies  in  accordance  with  the  thickness 
of  the  coating  required,  and  thence  through  a 
long  trough  of  intensely  cold  water  so  as  to 
render  the  gutta-percha  thoroughly  hard  be- 
fore reaching  the  collecting  drum.  The  exact 
thickness  of  this  insulating  cover  is,  like  the 
conductor,  governed  by  electrical  considera- 
tions for  obtaining  the  required  speed  of  sig- 
nalling through  a  given  length.*  It  is  also 
governed  by  mechanical  considerations,  a  con- 
ductor of  a  certain  size  involving  a  thickness 
of    insulation    in    proportion   to    that    size    in 


The 
Dielectric. 


Fig.    3. — GUTTA-PERCHA    COVERING    MACHINE. 

The  gum,  placed  between  the  upper  sides  of  the  two  rollers 
D  D,  is  drawn  down  between  them  in  a  thin  sheet,  and  forced 
along  to  a  die-box,  B,  by  the  Archimedean  screw  A.  The  entire 
maclune  is  steam-heated  —  so  as  to  keep  the  gutta-percha  in 
a  plastic  condition — and  is  driven  by  steam  or  other  available 
power. 


m 


*  Full  particulars  regarding  this  process  may  be  found  in 
"Submarine  Telegraphs:  Their  History,  Construction,  and 
Working,"  by  Charles  Bright,  F.R.S.E.,  A.M.Inst.C.E., 
M.I.Mech.E.,  M.I.E.E.  London :  Crosby  Lockwood  and 
Son. 

t  India-rubber  (somewhat  similar  as  a  gum)  is  occasionally 
adopted  for  certain  tropical  waters  invaded  by  the  teredo 
and  such  other  "  objects  of  the  deep  "  as  have  a  penchant  for 
the  comparatively  cheese-like  gutta-percha. 


order  to  avoid  buckling  through  due  to  great 
rigidity.  This  thickness  may  be  anything 
from  "065  to  "139  of  an  inch,  according  to  the 
length  and  required  speed.  The  diameter  of 
an     ordinary    insulated    wire    for    submarine 

*  Full  details  in  regard  to  this  are  given  in  the  author's 
lecture  to  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution  of  April  17, 
1907,  as  well  as  in  "  Subm-arine  Telegraphs." 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    SUBMAKINi:    CABLES 


cables  is  very  similar  to  that  of  a  lead 
pencil,  the  wire  conforming  closely  to  the 
lead  and  the  dielectric  to  the  wooden  case 
of  the  pencil. 

It  only  remains  to  be  said  that  the  cover- 
ing of'the  conductor  with  a  suitable  insulating 
dielectric  is  the  most  important  feature  in  the 
manufacture  of  a  submarine  cable,  besides 
representing  the  largest  proportion  of  the  total 
cost  of  the  lino.     The  conductor  and  dielec- 


o 


fig.  4. typical  atlantic  cable  core 

(actual  size). 

This  is  made  up  of  650  lbs.  copper  ami  400  lbs. 
gutta-percha  per  nautical  mile. 


the 


trie    combined    are    commonly    termed 
core." 

The  core  of  a  modern  Atlantic  cable  pro- 
vides for  a  speed  of  fifty  words  per  minute 
by  ordinary  manual  transmission,  and,  in 
effect,  some  100  words  a  minute  by  the 
duplex-automatic  system  of  sending  signals 
in  both  directions  simultaneously. 

For  teredo-ridden  waters  the  core  is  pro- 
tected by  metal  taping,  applied  helically. 
Inasmuch  as  no.  insulated  conductor,  such  as 
we  have  described,  could  be 
picked  up  from  any  substantial 


Mechanical 
Protection. 


depth  for  the  purposes  of  sub- 
sequent repair,  or  even  withstand  the  abrasion 
involved  by  some  portions  of  the  sea-bottom, 
the  core  is  always  covered  with  a  sheathing  of 
galvanized  iron  or  steel  wires,  with  a  packing 
of  jute  between  the  core  and  the  wires. 


Inner  Serving:. 


Armour. 


The  jute  yarns  are  served  round  the  tore 
by  machinery  of  the  same  type 
as  that  employed  for  laying  up 
the  copper  conductor  strands,  but  set  hori- 
zontally instead  of  vertically. 

The  sheathing  of  iron  or  steel  wires  is 
applied  in  a  similar  helical  fashion,  by  gear 
like  that  associated  with  the  manufacture 
of  ordinary  wire-ropes.  There 
may  be  anything  from  ten  to 
twenty  of  these  wires,  and  the  diameter  of 
each  may  be  anything  between  0*07  of  an 
inch  and  04  of  an  inch,  according  to  the  depth 
and  nature  of  the  bottom  for  which  the  cable 
is  intended. 

Galvanizing  iron  wires  is  an  insufficient 
guard  against  rust  in  salt-water,  and  mainly 
on  this  account  the  sheathing  is  covered  with 
a  mixture  of  mineral  pitch,  tar,  and  silica — 
commonly  known  as  Bright  and  Clark's  Com- 
pound— which  is  again  applied  after  the  cable 
has  been  enveloped  in  an  outer  serving  of 
hemp,  the  latter  constituting  a  firm  binding 
and  further  preservative.  The  silica  in  the 
compound  serves  as  an  additional  protection 
against  incursions  by  the  teredo  ;  and  in 
modern  practice  each  wire  is  either  separately 
compounded  in  advance,  or — for  "  main " 
types — enveloped  in  compounded  cotton  tape. 

Fig.  5  below  gives  a  general  view  of  the 
simultaneous  serv  ng  and  sheathing  of  a  cable. 
On  the  upper  floor  of  the  factory  may  be  seen 
the  drum  of  insulated  con- 
ductor, with  two  jute  serving 
machines  for  applying  separate 
layers  of  yarn,  each  in  opposite  directions. 
From  here  the  served  core  is  drawn  down,  as 


Cable  Manu- 
facture. 


360 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


shown,  to  the  sheathing  machine  on  the  floor 
below,  whence  it  is  led  through  apparatus 
for  applying  the  aforesaid  compound — cold 
first,  then  a  layer  of  canvas  tape  or  hemp 
yarns,  then  hot  compound,  then  another 
covering  of  hemp,  or  canvas  tape  with  the 
reverse  lay,  then  hot  compound  once  more — • 
the  completed  cable  finally  passing  under 
streams  of  cold  water  to  cool  and  harden  the 
surface  before  being  led  to  the  storage-tank, 
where  it  is  neatly  coiled  down,*  after  receiv- 
ing a  coating  of  whitewash  to  prevent  the 
different  turns  and  flakes  of  cable  sticking 
together. 

The  splicing  together  of  different  lengths  of 
the  cable  is  performed  in  the  same  way  as 
in  ordinary  hempen  or  iron  ropes.     Space  does 
not  permit   of   this  being  de- 
I     I  g  an      gcj-ibed   in   the    complete   way 
that  would  be  necessary  to  be 
of  any  real  use.     It  is  also  impossible  to  de- 
scribe here  the  important  operations  of  mak- 
ing a  joint   in   the   insulated  conductor,   the 
secret  of  which  is  care,   cleanliness,  and  ex- 
perience.    These    operations   have   been   fully 
recounted  in  the  course  of  a  paper  contributed 
by    the    author    to    the    Institution    of    Civil 
Engineers. -j- 

During  every  process  of  manufacture  the  line 
is  kept  under  searching  electrical  tests,  by 
instruments  similar  to  those  subsequently  em- 
ployed for  signalling  through 
the  line,  all  of  which  have 
already  been  described  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Early  Atlantic  Cables "  (vol.  ii.,  pp.  292, 
295). 

The  length  of  each  constituent  part  of  the 
line     as     made     is     measured 

^     ^  throughout       by      revolution- 

Manufacture.  °  "^ 

counters    fitted    to    each    ma- 
chine.    About  35  miles  is  an  average  output 

*  This  operation  has  already  been  depicted  on  page  286  of 
the  chapter  on  "  Early  Atlantic  Cables." 

t  "Inst.C.E.  Minutes  of  Proceedings."  Vol.  clvii.  See 
also  the  author's  "  Submarine  Telegraphs." 


Testing. 


of  cable  manufactured  at  a  factory  during  an 
ordinary  working  day. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  type  of  armour 
used  in  a  cable  varies  considerably  with  the 
depth  and  nature  of  the  bottom.  For  deep 
water,  tensile  strength  and 
lightness  being  the  main  con- 
siderations,  a  small  gauge- wire  of  mild  (Bes- 
semer) steel  is  therefore  usually  employed, 
such  a  wire  giving  a  breaking  strain  up  to 
100  tons  per  square  inch.  For  shore  ap- 
proaches, on  the  other  hand,  large  metallic 
surfaces  are  required  for  withstanding  abra- 
sion by  rocks,  anchors,  etc.  Considerable 
weight  is  also  necessary  in  these  situations  for 
contending  with  lateral  strains  due  to  strong 
currents.  Thus  here  an  ordinary  class  of 
iron  wire  ("Best-best"  quality)  is  employed, 
but  plenty  of  it. 

A  cable  of  the  present  day  is  constituted  by 
at  least  three  types — namely,  "  shore  end," 
"  intermediate,"  and  "  deep-sea  "  (or  "  main  ") 
cable. 

The  "  shore  end "  is  employed  for  some 
two  miles  from  each  terminus ;  the  "  inter- 
mediate " — a  modified  shore-end  type  as  re- 
gards the  class  of  wire  used — to  a  depth  of 
200  fathoms,  say  ;  and  the  main  cable  for 
the  remaining  portion.  Sometimes,  however, 
as  many  as  six  different  types  are  necessary 
for  coping  with  the  varying  conditions  along 
the  route,  a  distinguishing  letter  or  number 
being  applied  to  each. 

The  "  shore  end  "  is,  as  a  rule,  furnished 
with  two  sheathings,  the  outer  of  which  is 
composed  of  wires  of  quite  large  diameter, 
with  bedding  of  jute  between  the  inner  and 
outer  sheaths.  The  weight  of  such  a  cable 
is  often  as  much  as  30  tons  to  the  mile. 

In  the  case  of  the  Irish  shore  end,  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  6,  the  wires  of  the  outer  sheath- 
ing appear  elliptical.  In  reality,  however, 
they  are  the  ordinary  circular  wires,  but 
being  applied  with  a  ver}^  short  lay,  this 
appearance     is     produced     in     true     section. 


THE    LAYING    OF    SUBMAKixNE    CABLES. 


361 


Shore-end  cables  of  this  description  are  now 
largely  used  where  local  conditions  demand 
sheatliing  which,  besides  being  especially 
heavy,  also  offers  a  largo  metallic  surface  as 
a  defence  against  trawlers,  etc.  The  largest 
type  of  cable  in  existence  weighs  as  much  as 
62^  tons  per  mile,  being  designed  to  resist 
the  crushing  strain  of  icebergs  grounding  on 
the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  where  it  was 
landed  ])ut  a  few  months  ago. 


cent,  greater  than  was  obtained  in  tlie  earliest 

cables. 

LAYING. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  manufacture  of  a  sub- 
marine   cable    should    not    be 
embarked  on  until  a  survey  of     ^Preliminary 

Submarine 
Survey. 


the  route  has  been  effected 
for  determining  the  types  to 
be  adopted  and  the  length  of  each. 


In 


any 


Com[Dounded 
Hemp 


Cotton 
Taping. 


Steel 
Wires. 


Jute 

Inner 

Serving 


Gutta 

Percha 

Insulator 

Dielectric 


Copper 
Conductor 


View  Showind  the  various 
Coverings  oT  the 
DeepSeaCable 


•    9)   f 


Deep 
Sea. 


Light. 
Intermedlaifce 


Heavy 
Intermediate 


NewPoundUnd 
Shore-End 


Fig.    6. — MODERN    ATLANTIC    CABLE    TYPES    (4    ACTUAL    SIZE). 


Irish 
Shore-End 


Deep-sea  (main  type)  cable  of  the  descrip- 
tion depicted  in  the  sectional  elevation  view 
is  intended  for  maximum  ocean  depths  of 
three  or  four  miles.  It  will  bear  a  strain  of 
seven  tons  ;  and  being,  in  consequence,  cap- 
able of  supporting  a  considerable  length  of 
itself,  can  be  recovered  and  repaired  in  very 
deep  water. 

Though  the  general  principles  underlying  all 
ocean  telegraphy  remain  peculiarly  the  same 
as  at  first,  steady  advance  has  been  made  in 
the  quality  of  the  materials  used  in  submarine 
cable  manufacture.  Indeed,  the  available 
strength  of  a  modern  deep-sea  line,  such  as 
that  represented  by  Fig.   6,  is  some  30  per 


case  such  a  survey  is  essential  before  the 
actual  laying  proceeds.  In  early  days  several 
disasters  occurred  owing  to  the  lack  of  pre- 
liminary soundings,  and  the  want  of  even  a 
general  knowledge  of  the  bed  on  which  the 
cable  was  destined  to  rest. 

Some  idea  of  what  happens  when  a  cable 
is  laid  over  a  sea  bottom  that  has  not  been 
surveyed  may  be  gathered  from  Fig.  7.  In 
this  example  it  may  be  observed  that  even 
if  the  cable  did  not  break  during  the  operation 
of  laying,  it  would  be  pretty  certain  to  do 
so  soon  after,  due  to  the  strain  of  being  sus- 
pended from  point  to  point.  Such  irregu- 
larities  as   are   here   depicted  would   require 


362 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


very  special  precautions.  They  are,  however, 
best  avoided  altogether,  provided  a  more  suit- 
able route  can  be  found. 


o 

^ ■■ ^:^^^ 

500    - 

^«<T».                                                                                                                       / 

-s#^5^V/^^Nk                                                                          / 

^y////////'f!s^                                                                                    f 

WOO  _z 

^///////////^T7f^                                                                        / 

////////////Xy^^^                                                  / 

y/////////y//y//\                                               / 

- 

y///////////////\                                        '  / 

IS 00 

'y////////////////t''>^                    / 

y////////////////T7>^?>t^                              ,y(^ 

2000  — 

////////////////y/y////^^^-—^^''^  fyy\                             ^ 

///////////////////////\,            yZ/Ps.                          ^-'^Z 

zsoo3 

^^^^^^^^;3^^^5^?^^^^^ 

Fig.  7. — CABLE  LAYING  OVER  AN  IRREGULAR 
BOTTOM. 

Fig.  8  represents  the  sort  of  bed  that  cables 
are  laid  on  under  normal  conditions.  Even 
then  it  is  advisable  to  take  soundings  in  ad- 


Fig     8. — CONTOURS    OF    THE    SEA    BOTTOM. 

vance  at  intervals  of  about  ten  miles,  lest 
there  should  be  a  submarine  mountain — or, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  valley — on  the  route, 
such  as  must  be  avoided,  or  allowed  for,  in 
laying. 

All  deep-water  soundings  are  nowadays 
effected  by  means  of  very  fine  but  intensely 
strong  steel  wire  of  the  type  employed  in  the 
treble  notes  of  a  piano,  bearing  a  strain 
equivalent  to  130  tons  per  square  inch.  With 
such  a  wire,  and  a  suitable  weight  attached 
thereto,  the  depth  is  ascertained  by  noting 
the  length  which  runs  out  before  bottom  is 
struck,    the   wire   being  afterwards  recovered 


by  means  of  a  steam  or  other  engine.*  Be- 
sides measuring  the  depth,  it  is  customary, 
by  means  of  small  metallic  tubes  f  attached 
to  the  line,  to  secure  a  specimen  of  the 
bottom  ;  and  occasionally,  with  the  aid  of  a 
suitable  thermometer,  to  ascertain  the  tem- 
perature— also  a  matter  of  some  importance — 
which  at  great  depths  is  almost  down  to 
freezing  point. 

Having  dealt  with  the  construction  of  a 
cable  and  the  survey  of  the  route  preparatory 
to  laying,  we  now  come  to  the  shipment  of 
the  line.  There  are,  at  the 
present  time,  no  less  than  e  egrap 
fifty-seven  telegraph  ships  in 
active  service  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
Most  of  these,  however,  merely  have  to  do 
with  the  maintenance  of  cables  already 
laid  ;  for  there  are  less  than  a  dozen  large 
vessels .  employed  for  the  original  lajdng 
of  ocean  cables  by  the  contractors,  by 
far  the  largest  of  which  are  the  Tele- 
graph Construction  and  Maintenance  Com- 
pany's T.S.  Colonia  ;  the  India-rubber, 
Gutta-percha,  and  Telegraph  Works 
Company's  T.S.  Silvertoivn  ;  and  Messrs. 
Siemens  Bros,  and  Co.'s  T.S.  Faraday. 

The  Colonia  is  the  latest  of  the  big 
telegraph  ships,  and  has  entirely  out- 
stripped all  others  of  the  present  day  in 
size  and  every  other  respect.  W^ith  a 
length  of  500  feet  and  a  carrying  capacity  of 
11,000  tons,  she  is  capable  of  laying  an  entire 
Atlantic  cable  with  the  assistance  of  a  smaller 
vessel  for  landing  the  shoal- water  shore  ends. 

The  Silvertoum  (p.  365)  comes  next  in  point 
of  size.  Her  beam  is  as  much  as  56  feet,  and 
she  can  carry  8,000  tons,  though  her  length 
is  comparatively  inconsiderable. 

*  The  apparatus  and  roxitine  associated  with  deep-sea 
soundings  has  been  fully  described  in  Mr.  H.  D.  Wilkinson's 
treatise  on  this  subject,  as  well  as  by  the  present  author  in 
"  Engineering  "  of  January  13,  January  27,  and  February  10 
1899. 

■f  On  the  principle  of  the  Brooke  sounder  already  de- 
scribed (vol.  ii.,  p.  279)  in  th<j  chapter  on  "  Early  Atlantic 
Cables." 


.<<s-^- 


Fig.  9. — TKLEGPAPH    SHIP    "  COLONIA. 


Fig.   10. — TELKGUAPH    SHIP    "  FARADAY  " 


Fig.  11. — H.M.  TELEGRAPH  SHIP  "  IRIS." 


Fig.  12. — TELEGRAPH  SHIP  "  TELCONIA." 


THE    LAYINO    OF    S(TH\f ARTNK    r\\BT.ES. 


:M)5 


Tho   Faraday   is  a   shij)  of 

very  similar  dimensions.    Tliis 

vessel  is  of   interest   in  that, 

penny  steamboat-like,  she  has 

bows  (in  addition  to  rudders) 

aft    as    well    as    forward,  tho 

idea  being  to  facilitate  cable 

operations. 

Amongst  smaller    represen- 
tative      vessels       we       have 

H.M.T.S.  Iris,    the    guardian 

of     the     All -British     Pacific 

Cable,  with  a  gross  registered 

tonnage     a     little      over     a 

quarter  that  of  the  Colonia. 
But     though    one     of     the 

smallest,  the  most  interesting 

telegraph    ship     now     is     the 

Telconia,    just    recently    built 

for   the    Telegraph    Construc- 
tion Company.     She,  in  fact, 

forms  the  first  cable-repairing 

vessel  so  designed  that  every- 
thing is  ready  to  hand  in  its 

proper  place,  all  the  gear  re- 
quired    for    cable    operations 

being  forward,  and  the  sailors' 

quarters     relegated     to     the 

stern.* 

Fig.    14  presents  a   general 

idea  of  the  disposal  of   the  line,   as  well   as 

the  machinery  for  handling  it,  on  a  vessel 
intended  for  telegraph  work. 
This  view  happens  to  depict 
the  Great  Eastern  with  her 
historic  cable  cargo  ;  but  the 
same   general   plan   is  equally 

applicable  to  modern  custom. 

The  line  having  been  made  at  the  factory, 

it     is     gradually    stowed    on 
Shipment  of    ^^^^^  ^^^  ^j^.      ^^  ^j^j       ^^^^^ 

Cable. 

to  lay  it  on  the  route  selected. 

The  cable  is  drawn  out  from  the  factory  tanks 


Cable  and 
Machinery 
aboard  Tele- 
graph Ship. 


-TELEGRAPH   SHIP        SILVERTOWN 


over  tackle  leading  to  the  laying  vessel,* 
into  corresponding  watertight  iron  tanks  on 
board — of  which  there  may  be  three  or  four 
for  different  types  and  sections  of  cable, 
apportioned  in  suitable  positions  ready  for 
laying. 

Fig.  15  illustrates  one  of  these  tanks,  with 
tho  cable  partially  coiled  therein — indeed, 
very  closely  packed  in  horizontal  tlakes,  each 
carefully  whitewashed  to  prevent  sticking. 
Obviously  no  form  of  cable  could  be  coiled 
to  the  very  centre  of  the  tank  :  the  space  is 
therefore    usually   filled    up    by    a   system    of 


*  A  full  description  of  (his  craft  appeared  in  "  The  I!lec- 
trician'   of  July  16,  1909. 


*  As  illustrate<l  in  the  article  on  "  Early  Atlantic  Cables,' 
vol.  ii.  p.  289. 


366 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


i,   J\<>kiTtQ -Z^p    'Ma.c'hjrtrry 


Jjon^tt  ihd  zThCbl       Sect  t  an : 


Pnrirtg-Ou^  Machinery 


TroTLS  verse     Section/. 


Fig.  14. — PLAN  OF  CABLE  AND 
MACHINERY  ABOARD 


S.S. 


GREAT    EASTERN. 


Fig.     15.— CABLE    STOWAGE    IN    SHIP's    TANK. 

hollow  cones  as  shown.  The  tanks  are  also 
fitted,  as  may  be  seen,  wdth  some  sort  of  outer 
iron  framework,  often  termed  a  "  crinoline." 
The  two  combined  serve  as  a  close  and  safe 
guide  for  the  cable  in  its  egress  from  the 
bottom  of  the   tank   at   a  more  or  less  high 

*  In  the  present  article  wherever  an  historical  example  is 
given,  it  applies  equally  to  present-day  practice. 


speed  when  paying  out.  This 
framework  (see  Fig.  15)  is  sup- 
ported from  the  top  of  the  tank 
by  tackle,  which  is  lowered  as 
required,  in  order,  as  the  cable 
leaves  the  tank,  to  adjust  the  bottom  ring  to 
a  height  only  about  a  foot  above  that  of  the 
upper  flake  of  cable,  and  the  other  rings  in 
similarly  suitable  positions  relative  to  the 
top  corners  of  the  individual  cones.  By  this 
means  the  egress  of  the  cable  is  kept  in  close 
check  throughout. 

Having  dealt  with  the  installation  of  cable 
on  board  a  telegraph  ship,  attention  may  now 
be   turned   to   the    apparatus   and   procedure 
for  the  various  operations  en- 
tailed, previous  to  dealing  with       Apparatus 
,,  1       f    1      •        4^1,  employed  in 

the  work  oi   laying  the  wire,   ^   .  ,     • 

^     ®  Cable- Laying. 

When  paying  out,  the  cable  is 
(as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  16)  drawn  from  the 
centre  of  the  tank,  through  wooden  or  iron 
troughs,  to  a  brake  drum,  by  which  a  re- 
straining force  is  applied  to  prevent  too  rapid 
egress    outboard.     The    general    principles    of 


16. — GENERAL  ARRANGEMENT  OF  PAYING-OUT  GEAR  ON  BOARD  THE  "  GREAT  EASTERN." 


THE    LAYING    OF    SUBMARINE    CARLES. 


367 


this  apparatus  have  ah'eady  been  described 
somewhat  fully  in  the  article  on  "  Early 
Atlantic  Cables."  * 

Fig.  17  shows  a  combined  paying-out  drum 
and  brake  of  recent  type,  consisting  of  a  large 
but  light  iron  drum  about  six  feet  in  diameter. 
(  lose  against   the  rim   of  this   drum,   at  the 


i'AViMi-UL'T     UliU.M    A.ND    lillAKK. 


point  where  the  cable  arrives  at  and  quits 
the  machine,  are  pieces  of  hard  steel  (see  Fig. 
18)   fitting   to   its    circumference.     These   are 


Fig.    18. — FLEETING    KNIVES. 

ailed  "fleeting  knives."  As  already  men- 
tioned in  the  earlier  article,  with  a  view  to 
retaining  a  firm  hold  on  the  line  whilst 
being  paid  out,  this  drum   is    made    to    take 

*  Vol.  ii.,  pp.  291,  292. 


four  or  five  turns  of  the  cable,  and  the  object 
of  these  knives  is  to  prevent  (by  accurate 
guidance,  or  "fleeting")  the  incoming  turn 
riding  over  the  last  turn,  or  off  the  drum. 
To  the  drum  shaft  is  geared  a  revolution- 
counter,  indicating  the  length  of  cable  laid. 

For  the  purposes  of  recovering  on  board  a 
comparatively  short  length  of  line  whilst  in 
the  act  of  laying — in  the  case  of  a  fault  or 
some  untoward  accident— it  is  usual  for  the 
paying-out  machine  to  be  fitted  with  steam 
gear.  The  same,  also,  is  often  required  for 
paying  out  in  a  case  where  the  cable  out- 
board, in  very  shallow  water,  is  not  suffi- 
ciently heavy  for  it  to  run  out  freely  of  itself. 

The  general  principles  of  the  brake  which 
forms  part  of  this  apparatus  have,  as  already 
stated,  been  described  (vol.  ii.,  p.  292)  ;  and 
the  same  applies  to  the  dynamometer  gear, 
through  which  the  cable  passes  on  its  way 
outboard  from  the  brake  to  the  ship's  stern 
sheave. 

By  means  of  the  dynamometer  we  obtain  a 
ready  indication  of  the  amount  of  longitudinal 
strain  to  which  the  cable  has  been  subjected. 
The  stress  on  the  cable  can,  indeed,  be  actu- 
ally read  off  on  a  scale.  The  hand-wheel — 
shown  in  the  previous  article — for  adjusting 
the  brake-power  is  operated  by  a  mechanic 
in  accordance  Avith  the  indicated  strain.  This 
winch  controls  a  steel  rope,  the  farther  end 
of  which  is  fastened  on  to  the  levers  of  the 
brake  drum  and  weight  platform. 

Fig.  19  presents  a  good  general  idea  of  the 
paying-out  apparatus  on  a  modern  telegraph 
ship,  showing  the  mechanic  at  the  dyna- 
mometer wheel  (on  the  farther  side),  by  means 
of  which  he  is  able,  as  stated  in  the  previous 
article,  to  release  all  the  weights  on  the 
brake  levers  at  a  moment's  notice,  as  well  as 
to  reduce  or  increase  the  strain  as  required. 

To  meet  any  emergency  such  as  might 
involve  additional  brake-power — especially  if 
the  drum  apparatus  failed — additional  hold- 


368 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Fig.  20. — bright's  holding-back  gear 


Fig.  19. — MODERN  DY- 
NAMOMETER GEAR, 

ing-back  machinery  is 

usually    provided    on 

large  vessels  intended 

for     cable  -  laying     in 

deep    water.     This    is 

placed     between     the 

cable    tanks    and  the 

brake    drum.      It    is 

sometimes  constituted 

bjT^   several   flanged   wheels,    each   surrounded 

by  a  jockey  pulley,  thereby  also  providing  a 

certain  amount  of    tension    before   the   cable 

reaches  the  drum. 

Another  and  perhaps  preferable  form  of 
auxiliary  gear  consists  (as  depicted  in  Fig,  20) 
of  a  double  row  of  semicircular  cast-iron 
pieces,  placed  on  a  solidly  constructed  table. 
One  row  is  fixed,  and  the  other  row  arranged 
so  that  each  segment  piece  is  opposite  a 
vacant  space  in  the  fixed  row.  The  former 
can  be  moved  to  and  fro  across  the  table  by 
a  system  of  bevelled  wheels  and  threaded 
spindles.  The  interval  between  the  rows 
may  thus  be  increased  or  diminished  at  will, 
thereby  providing  for  a  varying  degree  of 
friction  imparted  to  the  cable  and  a  corre- 
sponding variation  in  the  speed  of  paying  out. 


This  friction-table  apparatus  may  be  seen  in 
position  in  Fig.  21.  The  same  view  also 
shows  a  double  cylinder  steam-engine  fitted 
to  the  paying-out  machine  for  the  purposes 
already  named. 

In  the  forward  part  of  a  telegraph  ship 
stronger  gear  (in  duplicate  for  each  bow)  is 
fitted,  similar  to  that  which  has  been  de- 
scribed aft,  but  more  powerful.  It  is  furnished 
with  toothed  wheels  and  brakes,  which  latter 
are  controlled  direct  from  the  machine  itself, 
the  dynamometer  apparatus  in  this  case  only 
serving  the  purpose  of  measuring  the  strain. 
The  machine  is  actuated  by  a  powerful  two- 
cylinde-  horizontal   engine,   and  has   already 

been  referred  to  and 
partly  illustrated  in 
the  earlier  article, 
with  reference  to  the 
recovery  of  the  second 
Atlantic  cable.  The 
entire  picking-up  ap- 
paratus is  shown  in 
the  general  view  of 
the  Great  Eastern 
(Fig.     14),     including 


Fig,    21. — FRICTION    TABLE    ON    T.S.    "  DACIA." 

the  bow-baulks  and  sheaves  over  which  a 
cable  is  picked  up.  Small  repairing-ships 
only    have,    as    a    rule,    forward    gear,    their 


THE    LAYING    OF    SUBMARINE    CABLES. 


369 


operations  consisting  mainly  of  grappling  for 
and  picking  up  cables,  any  ehort  lengths  subse- 
quently laid  being  performed  from  the  same 
machine. 

The  buoys  used  in  cable  work,  together 
with  their  attachments,  fixings,  and  moor- 
ings, are  of  various  shapes,  sizes,  and  de- 
scriptions,   such    as    it    would 

Cable  Buoys   ^^  impossible   to  deal  with  in 

Buoying.       ^^^^^^  ^®^®-     ^"^%  '*  ^^J  ^^ 
said   that    for   shallow   water, 

where  the  necessary  moorings  are  no  great 
weight,  they  need  only  be  of  small  dimen- 
sions ;  while  for  great  depths  they  are  of 
considerable  size,  and  capable  of  supporting 
three  or  four  tons  of  moorings.  The  shape 
of  a  buoy  is  of  great  importance.  A  badly 
shaped  buoy  in  a  heavy  sea  will  be  so  un- 
steady that  it  will  soon  chafe  its  moorings, 
and  may  even  give  such  violent  jerks  as  to 
break  the  flagstaff  and  lamp  supports  sur- 
mounting it.  A  very  ordinary  type  of  buoy 
for  deep-sea  cable  operations  is  that  shc^n 
on  p.  369  of  the  article  on  "  Early  Atlantic 
Cables,"  and  also — in  operation  at  sea — as  a 
heading  to  the  said  article  (vol,  ii.,  p.  277). 

Let  us  now  briefly  consider  the  buoying  of 
a  cable.  In  buoying  a  cable  which  is  hanging 
from  the  bows,  the  method  of  procedure  is 
similar  to  that  employed  nautically  when  let- 
ting go  a  mark  or  "  watch  "  buoy. 

When,  however,  the  cable  hangs  over  the 
stern,  and  it  is  necessary  to  pay  the  moorings 
out  from  forward,  the  matter  becomes  less 
simple.  A  side  rope  is  taken  round  the 
picking-up  drum,  out  over  the  bow  sheave 
and  along  the  ship's  side  to  the  quarter. 
Here  it  is  shackled  to  a  length  of  chain  which 
passes  inboard  over  the  stern  sheave,  and 
which  has  shackled  on  to  it  another  length 
of  chain — the  "  stray  chain."  This  in  turn 
is  shackled  to  a  heavy  mushroom  anchor 
weighing  anything  between  3  and  5  cwt., 
according  to  circumstances.     The  free  end  of 

(1,408)  24 


the  chain  is  now  secured  to  the  cable.  In- 
board of  this  a  rope  is  stoppered  on  to  the 
cable  and  set  taut  round  a  largo  bollard. 
The  cable  is  then  6lack<(l  out  ~n  that  the 
rope  takes  the  entire  weight.  All  being  ready 
forward,  as  soon  as  the  end  of  the  cable  has 
been  eased  out  till  the  strain  comes  on  the 
mushroom  slip-rope,  the  rope  holding  it  is 
cut,  and  the  mushroom  let  go  at  the  same 
moment.  The  ultimate  result  is  shown  in 
Fig.  22. 

In  picking  up  a  buoy,  whether  serving  as 
a   simple   mark   buoy   or  as   a   buoy  on   the 


Fig.  2 


99 


-END    OF    CABLE    BUOYED. 


end  of  a  cable,  it  should,  if  possible,  be  ap- 
proached with  the  ship's  head  to  the  current 
or  wind,  and  certainly  never  with  these  forces 
on  the  broadside.  By  the  time  the  ship  is 
within  a  hundred  fathoms  or  so  from  the 
buoy,  a  boat  is  lowered  and  sent  off  to  unrig 
it.  Fig.  23  shows  a  boat  going  off  to  the 
Great  Eastern  for  the  purpose,  in  connection 
with  the  repair  of  an  early  Atlantic  cable. 
This  unrigging  is  accomplished  as  quickly  as 
possible  ;  and  the  ship  having  run  up  close 
to  the  buoy,  the  boat  pulls  to  her,  paying 
out  a  small  line  which  is  made  fast  to  the 
buoy. 

Having  described  the   various   implements 

VOL.    III. 


370 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Testing- Hut. 


JFig.  23. UNSHACKLING  A  BUOY  (PREVIOUS  TO  PICKI 

UP    AND    GETTING    IN    BOARD). 

involved    in    cable    work,    we    are    now    in    a 

position  to  deal  with  the  actual  laying  of  the 

line  between  two  given  spots. 

Programme     rpj^^    ^^gg^j    retained    for    the 

Cable^Tec"t?on.  '^°^^^  ^^'^  proceeds  to  the 
landing-place  selected  for  one 
end  of  the  cable.  When  the  circumstances 
warrant  such  an  arrangement,  it  is  customary 
for  a  small  auxiliary  vessel  to  bo  retained  for 
the  landing  of  the  shore  ends. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  one  shore  end  is  first 
landed,  and  its  seaward  extremity  buoyed  at 
a  distance  of  about  two  miles,  till  a  depth  of 
some  twenty  fathoms  has  been  reached.  The 
vessel  now  proceeds  towards  the  landing-place 
selected  at  the  other  side,  to  land  the  cable 
there.*  This  end  is  also  buoyed  at  a  suit- 
able point,  unless,  in  the  absence  of  an  auxil- 
iary vessel,  the  same  ship  is  to  lay  the  main 
cable.  On  the  first  supposition,  the  big  vessel 
picks  up  the  second  buoyed  end,  splices  on 
either  intermediate  or  main  type  cable,  and 
lays  the  entire  line  up  to  the  farther  buoyed 
end.  This  is  then  picked  up  whilst  still 
hanging  on  to  the  main  cable  already  laid, 
and  after  a  splice  has  been  effected  between 
the  two,  the  bight  of  cable  is  slipped,  thereby 
completing  the  work. 


Let  us  now  follow  up  in  closer  detail 
the  programme  which  has  just  been  briefly 
forecast. 

At  each  landing-place  the  end  of  the  line 
is  taken  into  a  previously  erected  hut  fur- 
nished with  electrical  instruments.  These 
are  for  testing  the  cable 
whilst  it  is  being  sub- 
merged, exchanging  signals  through  the 
line  with  the  testing-room  aboard  ship, 
and  subsequently  from  one  shore  to  the 
other,  previous  to  connection  being  estab- 
lished with  the  telegraph  office  in  the  town 
NG  for  the  regular  transmission  of  messages. 
Fig.  24  serves  to  illustrate  the  sort  of  erec- 
tion usually  set  up  as  a  testing-hut — very 
commonly  a  corrugated-iron  building  about 
twelve  feet  scj^uare,  sent  out  from  home  in 
parts  and  put  together  on  the  spot. 

The  ship  that  is  about  to  land  the  shore 
end   anchors  opposite,   and  as   close   as  pos- 
sible to,  the  site  selected  for  the  testing-hut. 
A  boat  is  then  lowered  and  a 
light  Manilla    line   run  ashore    Preparations 

to   the   hut.      The   trench   for    *««•  landing 

Cable. 

embedding    the     cable    under 

the    beach,    if    not    previously    opened    out, 
should  now  be  dug  to  a  depth  of  some  three 


A  supplementary  series  of  soundings  is  often  taken  en 


rotUe. 


Fig.    24. — TESTING-HUT    ASHORE. 


THE    LAYING    OF    SUBMARINE    CABLES. 


371 


Landing: 
Shore  End. 


or  four  feet,  in  a  straight  line  towards  the 
ship,  from  the  hut  to  low-water  mark. 

There  are  several  methods  of  landing  the 
end  of  the  cable.  It  will,  however,  be  suffi- 
cient to  describe  that  which  is  most  favoured, 
where  applicable,  in  modern 
practice  ;  for,  besides  being 
expeditious,  it  overcomes  cer- 
tain difficulties  and  dangers  surrounding  the 
use  of  rafts,  boats,  etc. 

This  plan  is  due  to  Mr.  R.  Kaye  Gray, 
M.Inst.O.E.,  and  consists  of  buoying  the  cable 
at  every  five  or  ten  fathoms,  as  it  is  drawn 
shore  wards,  by  means  of  empty  casks,  or 
preferably  by  temporarily  inflated  india-rubber 
balloon  buoys,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25. 

In  carrying  out  this  method,  the  picking-up 
machine  is  usually  turned  to  account  to  haul 
ashore  the  line  with  cable  attached  to  it. 
The  general  scheme  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  26. 
Two  light  skeleton  pulleys  of  large  diameter 
(technically  known  as  "  spider  sheaves  ")  are 
taken  ashore,  where  they  are  firmly  fixed 
just  above  high- water  mark — one  close  to  the 
mouth  of  the  trench,  and  the  other  about 
100  yards  off  along  the  beach  in  one  direction 
or  the  other,  according  to  the  exact  position 


Fig.  25. — gray's  method  of  landing  cable 

BY    BALLOON    BUOYS. 

carried  in  a  boat  to  the  bows  of  the  ship, 
where  it  is  taken  round  the  picking-up  drum. 
The  latter  gear  is  then  put  into  operation  for 
hauling  on  to  the  line  ;  and  thus  the  end  of  the 
cable,  securely  fastened  to  the  rope,  is  grad- 
ually hauled  ashore.  As  the  cable  leaves  the 
stern  of  the  ship,  the  balloon  buoys  are 
attached  at  the  required  intervals.  Fig.  27 
depicts  the  operation  in  a  completed  stage, 
the  balloons  being  cut  away  after  the  cable 
has  been  brought  to  the  testing-hut.  By  this 
method  the  average  time  taken  for  landing 
the  cable  is  some  four  or  five  hours. 

The  second  shore  end  having  been  landed 
and  the  seaward  end  buoyed,  the  vessel  with 
the  main  cable  on  board  steams  up  to  the 
buoy  and  proceeds  to  pick  up 

the  buoyed  end.     Having  done    fj^^}""/SJ* 
,        .      „         ,  ,  Main  Cable. 

so,  a  splice  is  eiiected  between 

this  cable  end  and  that  of  the  cable  about 


Fig.    20. — HAULING    CABLE    ASHORE    BY    STEAM. 

of  the  ship.  The  hauling  line  brought  ashore 
from  the  ship's  stem  is  now  rove  through  the 
pulley  nearest  the  trench  ;  and  after  being 
subsequently    led    through    the    other,    it    is 


to  be  laid  towards  the  distant  shore.  On  the 
completion  of  the  splice,  preparations  are 
made  for  slipping  the  bight  over  the  bows 
prelminary    to    paying    out    from    the    stern. 


372 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Pig.    27. TELEGRAPH    SHIP    "  SILVERTOWN  "    LANDING    SHORE    END. 


Before  effecting  the  splice,  the  top  end  of 
the  cable  in  the  tank  to  be  paid  out  from  is 
secured  in  position  and  threaded  through  the 
paying-out  machinery  aft,  ready  for  laying. 
From  here  it  is  led  outside  the  ship,  and  a 
sufficient  length  brought  inboard  again  over 
one  of  the  bow  sheaves,  for  the  purposes  of 
the  splice  with  the  shoreward  end.  All  this 
is  shown  in  Fig.  28. 

During  splice-making  each  cable  is  kept 
securely  "  stoppered  "  at  the  bows.  In  pre- 
paring to  slip  the  bight  over  the  bows,  men 
are  stationed  at  suitable  distances  along  the 
ship's  side  with  hand  slip-ropes,  the  bights 
of  which  suspend  the  cable  over  the  side,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  illustration.  When  the 
splice  is  let  go  over  the  bows,  the  strain  is 
taken  up  by  these  hand  slip-ropes,  the  ends 
of  which  are  let  go  successively  as  the  strain 
comes  on  them  in  turn.  By  this  means  the 
strain — due  to  the  weight  of  the  cable  as  it 


sinks — is  sufficiently  checked 
for  it  not  to  come  seriously 
on  the  ship's  stern. 

For  slipping  the  splice  at 
the  bows,  the  following  is 
the  usual  procedure  :  The 
cable  is  eased  away  through 
the  rope  stoppers  until  only 
a  small  bight  remains  in- 
board. Similar  outboard 
stoppers  are  then  fastened 
to  the  cable  on  each  side 
just  clear  of,  and  a  little 
below,  the  bow  sheaves.  A 
manilla  rope  is  next  led  from 
the  drum  of  the  picking-up 
machine,  and,  threaded 
through  the  end  of  the 
outward  stopper,  is  made  fast  to  bollards 
at  the  bows.  When  this  has  been  done  on 
each  side  of  the  bight,  the  drum  ropes  are 
hove  tight  on  board  and  the  inboard  stoppers 
loosened.  A  heaving-line  is  next  run  through 
the  bight  to  guide  and  steady  it  over  the 
bows.  The  drum  ropes  are  then  slackened 
away,  thus  gradually  lowering  the  bight  of 
cable  into  the  sea.  As  soon  as  the  bight  has 
reached  the  position  illustrated  by  Fig.  29, 
the  heaving-in  line  is  run  clear  of  the  cable  ; 
and  when  sufficient  length  of  drum  rope  has 
been  paid  out,  the  ends  fast  to  bollards  are 
let  go,  and  the  ropes  run  clear  through  the 
outboard  stoppers. 

Having  successfully  passed  the  cable  out- 
boaid,  and  the  ship  being  suitably  handled, 
the  line  leads  out  from  the  stern.  The  vessel 
forthwith  sets  out  on  her  course  for  the  pro- 
posed route,  and  paying  out  is  proceeded  with. 
When  a  cable  is  laid  at  a  uniform  speed,  on 


.  &Tt«N 
Shcav 


ice 


Fig.    28. — PREPARATIONS    FOR    SLIPPING    SPLICE    FOR    PAYING    OUT    PROM    STERN. 


THE    LAYING    OF    SUBMARINE    CABLES. 


373 


Fig.    29. — SLIPPING    BIGHT    AT    BOWS. 

a  level   bottom,   quite   straight   but   without 
tension,  it  forms  an  inclined  line  towards  the 

position    of    the    bottom    that 
Laying  Main    •.        u-       ^  i 

C  hi  ultimately     occupies — pre- 

cisely the  movement  of  a 
battalion  in  line  changing  front.  Again,  when 
paying  out  cable  in  an  ocean  depth  of  tliree 
miles,  it  is  calculated  that,  with  the  ship  steam- 
ing eight  knots,  the  length  from  the  stern  of 
the  vessel  to  the  spot  where  it  touches  the 
ground  is  over  twenty-five  miles,  and  that  it 
takes  a  particular  point  in  the  cable  more  than 
two  hours  and  a  half  to  reach  the  bottom 
from  the  time  it  first  enters  the  water. 

As  has  already  been  indicated,  in  order  to 
provide  for  the  declivities  of  the  bottom,  a 
certain  length  of  spare,  or  "  slack,"  cable 
requires  to  be  paid  out  beyond  that  which 
would  be  involved  by  the  distance  over- 
ground. The  slack  cable  actually  so  paid 
out  will  be  inversely  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  ship's  speed,  and  depends, 
firstly,  on  the  weight  of  a  length  of  cable 
sufficient  to  reach  the  bottom  vertically  ;  and, 
secondly,  on  the  holding-back  force.  It  can 
in  fact,  be  varied  either  by  regulating  the 
brake   force   or    changing   the   speed   of   the 


vessel  ;  but  the  former  plan  is  more  im- 
mediately effective. 

The  average  slack  with  which  the  cable  is 
to  be  laid  is  generally  arranged  beforehand. 
It  is  well  never  to  let  it  fall  appreciably  below 
five  per  cent.,  and  it  should  bo  increased  to 
ten  per  cent,  (or  more,  if  necessary)  over  a 
sloping  or  irregular  bottom. 

The  speed  of  the  ship  during  laying  being 
usually  from  six  to  eight  knots,  tables  are 
calculated  in  advance  corresponding  to  dif- 
ferent rates  of  speed  within  these  limits, 
giving,  for  about  every  50-fathom  depth,  the 
load  to  be  placed  on  the  brake  levers,  in 
order  to  lay  anything  between  five  and  twelve 
per  cent,  slack.  With  these  tables  the  slack 
is  readily  regulated,  provided  we  know  the 
depth  and  the  speed  of  the  ship  overground 
with  sufficient  accuracy.  A  development  of 
this  in  modern  practice  is  to  pay  out  a  small 
steel  wire  without  slack,  and  by  comparison 
with  this  to  regulate  the  paying  out  of  the 
cable.  This  plan  was  due  to  that  dis- 
tinguished electrical  engineer  the  late  Werner 
Siemens. 

The  soundings  taken  previous  to  laying  the 
cable  should  be  numerous  enough  to  give  a 
tolerably  exact  profile  of  the  bottom  between 
the  two  landing-places.  The  track  of  the 
cable  is  naturally  plotted  on  a  chart,  and  the 
positions  of  the  ship  at  any  time  are,  of 
course,  fixed  by  astronomical  observation  as 
occasion  offers.  Recourse  has  also  to  bo  made 
to  the  ship's  log  and  the  revolutions  of  the 
propeller  for  estimating  the  distance  covered 
by  the  vessel,  and  so  also  helping  to  give  the 
"  dead  reckoning  "  position  at  any  moment.* 

*  Though  some  of  the  larger  vessels  are  capable  of  holding 
upwards  of  1,000  miles  in  each  tank,  it  is  usually  necessarj'  to 
ptTform  the  operation  of  "changing  tanks  "during  the  laN'ing 
of  a  long  line.  That  is  to  say,  the  cable  in  one  tank  being 
exhausted,  that  in  another  has  to  be  tumetl  to.  It  would  be 
beyond  our  scope  to  deal  with  the  full  routine  of  tliis  some- 
what delicate  operation.  It  was,  however,  described  in  de- 
tail by  the  author  in  his  recent  lectures  to  the  Hoyal  Xaral 
War  College,  Portsmouth,  as  well  as  previously  in  those  de- 
livered to  the  Royal  Engineers  at  Chatham,  since  duly 
published. 


374 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


On  arriving  within  sight  of  the  distant 
buoyed  end,  the  ship  is  gradually  slowed 
down  and  stopped  as  near  to  the  buoy  as 
possible,  the  cable  being  allowed  to  run  out 
till  it  hangs  almost  vertically  from  the  stern. 
Meanwhile  a  stout  line  has  been  passed  from 
the  picking-up  drum  round  the  ship's  side  to 
the  stern.  When  it  has  been  securely  "  stop- 
pered," the  cable  is  next  cut  abaft  the  pay- 
ing-out drum,  and  after  being  made  fast  to 
the  line  is  led  round  to  the  bows  by  the 
picking-up  gear. 

The  shoreward  end  is  then  detached  from 

its  buoy  and  picked  up  on  one  of  the  other 

bow  sheaves,  the  buoy  being  taken  inboard 

at  the  same  time.     The  shore- 

Ficking-  up     ward  end  is  next  tested  through, 

D         ^  c   ^    and  if  the  electrical  condition 
Buoyed  End. 

of  both  this  and  the  main 
cable  is  quite  satisfactory,  a  splice  is  at  once 
effected  between  them. 

Two  new  hempen  ropes  are  then  secured 
(as  shown  in  Fig.  30)  to  the  bight  of  the  cable 
a  few  fathoms  on  either  side  of  the  splice, 
and  the  ends  of  these  ropes  taken  round  the 
two  picking-up  drums,  one  round  each.  Both 
drum-ropes,  holding  on  to  the  two  sides  of 
the  bight,  are  now  eased  away  through  the 
stoppers  till  their  fastenings  with  the  cable 
reach  the  baulks.  Two  thimbles  are  next 
secured,  one  to  each  leg  close  inside  the  bow 
sheave,  ropes  being  passed  through  them,  and 
the  two  parts  of  each  brought  round  outboard 
over  both  bows.  One  of  the  two  ends  on 
either  side  is  secured  to  bollards  on  the  fore- 
castle, the  other  being  passed  in  through 
hawse-pipes,  and  there  kept  well  in  hand. 
Both  drum-ropes  are  now  slowly  paid  out, 
the  legs  of  the  cable  being  eased  through  the 
stoppers,  and  seized  to  the  drum-ropes  as  they 
go  out.  The  slip-ropes  are  also  eased  out  as 
required. 

All  this  time  the  bight  is  being  carefully 
tended  by  several  men,  who  stand  by  till  the 


Fig.    30. — PREPARING    TO    LET    GO    FINAL    SPLICE 
AND    BIGHT. 

time  is  ripe  for  passing  it  over  the  bow  sheaves. 
The  procedure  is,  indeed,  very  similar  to  that 
described  for  passing  the  bight 
from  the  bows  to  the  stern.  Slipping 

When  the  bight  is  well  be- 
low the  bow  baulks,  the  ship  is  put  astern,  and 
both  drum-ropes  cut  simultaneously.  The 
bight  should  then  have  found  its  way  to  the 
bottom,  thereby  bringing  to  a  successful  close 
the  laying  of  the  entire  cable,  involving  a 
good  deal  of  arduous  work,  not  unmingled 
with  anxiety. 

Throughout  the  laying  of  the  line  a  con- 
tinuous electrical  test  is,  as  has  been  shown 
in  the  previous  article,  kept  on  the  cable 
from   the    ship.     This  test  is  for  ascertaining 


Fig.    31. — LETTING    GO    FINAL    BIGHT. 


THE    LAYING    OF    SUBMARINE    CABLES. 


375 


Fig. 


-TESTING-ROOM   ABOARD    SHIP    (t.S.    "  COLONIA  "). 


Electrical 
Testing, 


that  continuity  is  maintained  from  end  to 
end,  and  that  the  electrical  insulation  is 
satisfactory.  In  addition  to 
this,  signals  are  exchanged,  at 
pre-determined  time  intervals, 
between  the  ship  and  the  shore  hut  from 
which  the  cable  has  been  laid.  Occasional 
brief  messages  are  also  included  in  the  routine. 

CONCLUSION. 

Perhaps  the  most  recent  striking  develop- 
ment in  submarine  telegraphy  is  the  All- 
British    Pacific     Cable,    in    deep    water,    far 

distant  from  trade    routes  or 
The  World's 


Cable  System. 


foreign  shores.     This  runs  into 


depths  of  four  miles  in  places  ; 
and  just  as  the  first  Atlantic  cable  was 
considered  at  the  time  "  a  wild  freak  of 
people  that  were  to  be  pitied,"  so  also  this 


first  Pacific  cable  was  similarly  spoken  of 
by  some,  mainly  on  account  of  the  great 
length  (3,458  nautical  miles)  of  one  of  its 
sections.  It  was,  however,  laid  (in  1902) 
without  a  hitch. 

The  useful  life  of  a  cable  may  be  nowadays 
as  much  as  forty  years,  after  which  it  is 
usually  better  to  replace  the  line  than  to 
attempt  to  again  repair  it. 

In  the  present  day  cables  have  no  history. 
It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  from  this 
that  we  do  not  have  occasional  minor  mishaps 
nowadays.  Moreover,  even  though  our  mate- 
rials are  so  vastly  superior  to  what  the  pioneers 
had  at  hand,  there  are  still  the  usual  eventu- 
alities, many  of  which,  as  has  been  shown, 
are  scarcely  under  control. 

By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  cables 


376  ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  have  been  manu-  ing  great  belief  in  the  utiUty  of  wireless  teleg- 

factured    and    laid    by    British    contractors  ;  raphy  for  all    maritime    purposes    and    as  a 

but    France,    Germany,    and    Italy    all    now  helpmate  to  our  cable  system,  especially  in 

have    their    cable    works    and    ships,    whilst  cases  where  cables  are  ineffective.     Certainly 

Japan  will  no  doubt  shortly.  so  far  there  are  no  signs  of  cables  being  re- 

The  statistics  below  present  a  few  facts  of  placed   by   wireless   telegraphy   when   further 

general  interest  in  connection  with  this  very  means  of  communication  are  required  ;    and, 

wide  subject,  which  it  has  only  been  possible  as  a  matter  of  fact,  over  85,000  miles  of  cable 

to  deal  with  cursorily  in  the  course  of  these  have  been  made  and  laid  since  the  Marconi 

pages.  Company    was  first   established  twelve  years 

APPROXIMATE  STATISTICS.  ago-more  than  five  times  as  much,  indeed. 

Total  length  of  cable  laid 257,000  miles.  g^g    ^^g    jj^^de    and    laid    during    the   twelve 

Total  cost  of  cable  laid £52,000,000. 

Cost  per  mile  (construction  and  laying) £200.  "                   ^ 

Useful  life  of  a  cable 30to40years.  At  the  moment  telegraphy  by  cable  bears 

much   the   same   relation   to   radio    (wireless) 

The  author  is  not  one  of  those  who  believe  telegraphy  as  steam  navigation  does  to  sail 
in  the  early  consignment  of  cables  to  the  navigation  in  the  matter  of  speed  and  re- 
region  of  antiquarian  museums,  though  hav-  liability. 


COMMERCIAL    CABLE    COMPANY'S    STATION    AT    WATERVILLE 

(general    VIEW.) 

Some  idea  is  given  here  of   an  Atlantic  cable  station  of  to-day.     In  this  instance  it 
amounts  to  a  cable  colony^practically  constituting  the  town. 


THE    MODERN    DESTRUCTOR. 

BY  F.   L.  WATSON,  M.I.Mech.E.,  A.M.Inst.C.E. 


THE  disposal  of  the  rubbish  of  cities  by 
burning  was  known  and  practised  by 
the  ancients,  a  fact  which  can  be 
proved  by  many  classical  and  Biblical  quota- 
tions. During  the  Dark  Ages,  however,  all 
systematic  sanitary  work  fell  into  disuse,  and 
the  disposal  of  refuse  was  left  to  the  indi- 
vidual, who  easily  solved  the  difficulty  by 
depositing  it  in  the  public  street. 

When  modern  civilization  brought  with  it 
the  organization  of  public  cleansing,  in  some 
countries  the  system  was  adopted  of  appoint- 
ing a  public  contractor,  who  had  a  right  to 
charge  each  householder  for  the  removal  of 
his  rubbish  ;  in  others  the  householders  united 
to  employ  their  own  contractors ;  and  in  others, 
again,  the  municipality  undertook  the  collec- 
tion and  disposal  of  rubbish  either  by  employ- 
ing a  contractor  or  by  using  its  own  means  of 
transport  and  employing  direct  labour. 

Collection  and  disposal  by  the  municipality 
is  now  the  general  rule  in  England  and  in 
Grermany,  and  to  a  great  extent  in  France  ;  but 
in  the  United  States  collection  and  removal 
by  contractors  is  prevalent. 

Until  quite  recently  it  was  the  universal 
custom  of  municipalities  to  deposit  the  rub- 
bish thus  collected  in  tips,  using  it  to  fill  up 
old  brick  pits  and  hollow 
he  Old        spaces,  and  for  raising  and  re- 

r^.  .        claiming  waste  or  marshy  land. 

Disposal.  ^  "^ 

Where  suitable  land  is  avail- 
able a  great  deal  of  town  refuse  may  be  use- 
fully employed  in  this  way,  provided  the  dis- 
tance is  not  too  great  ;  but  the  tipping  of 
refuse  in  any  area  included  in  the  possible 
growth  of  a  city,  and  which  may  become 
building  land,  ought  to  be  entirely  prohibited, 
because  this  material  will  for  many  years  go 


on  fermenting  and  producing  noxious  germs 
whose  deleterious  action  can  only  be  pre- 
vented by  the  natural  process  of  growing 
crops  on  the  surface. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  municipalities, 
especially  of  large  cities,  are  being  more  and 
more  driven  to  adopt  the  complete  and  final 
disposal  of  their  rubbish  by  the  most  ancient 
and  perfect  of  purifying  agents  —  namely, 
fire. 

When  special  furnaces  were  first  introduced 
for  this  purpose  in  England  they  were  very 
crude  affairs,  erected  by  the  local  bricklayer 
without  any  regard  for  the  science  of  com- 
bustion. In  due  course,  however,  the  design- 
ing and  building  of  destructors  became  recog- 
nized as  an  important  branch  of  engineering, 
and  there  are  now  a  number  of  engineers  who 
devote  all  their  attention  to  this  subject.  The 
result  has  been  that  the  destructor  of  to-day 
has  become  a  highly  scientific  and  very  useful 
apparatus,  and  one  in  which  enlightened  muni- 
cipalities are  prepared  to  invest  very  large 
sums  of  money. 

The  most  important  step  on  the  upward 
march  occurred  when  the  principle  of  forced 
draught,  embodied  from  time  immemorial  in 
the  blacksmith's  fire,  was  ap- 
plied to  the  destructor.  The 
immediate  result  was  to  pro- 
duce rapid  combustion  and  a  high  tempera- 
ture, and  to  prove  that  all  classes  of  ordinary 
town  rubbish  are,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
auto-combustible  or  capable  of  burning  with- 
out added  fuel.  The  high  temperature  pro- 
duced by  this  improvement  led  to  the  idea 
that  the  heat  evolved  could  be  utilized,  and 
tliis  was  done  by  putting  a  small  boiler  in  the 
flue  of  the  destructor  and   using  the  steam 


Forced 
Draught. 


378 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


generated  to  produce  the  forced  draught  for 
the  furnace. 

Continuous  improvements  in  the  furnaces 
have  entirely  reversed  the  proportions  of  the 
furnace  and  the  boiler,  and  whereas  in  the 
early  days  a  boiler  of  25  or  50  horse-power 
was  considered  sufficient  for  a  row  of  eight  or 
ten  large  furnaces  burning  at  a  comparatively 
slow  rate,  we  now  find  boilers  of  200  or  300 
horse-power  attached  to  a  battery  of  two  or 
three  furnaces,  the  boiler  taking  up  almost  as 
much  room,  and  costing  almost  as  much  money, 
as  the  destructor  itself. 

So  far  from  merely  providing  the  steam  for 
their  own  forced  draught,  modern  destructors 
produce  a  vast  surplus  which  is  used  for  many 
purposes,  the  production  of  electric  light  and 
power  being  one  of  the  most  important. 

Striking  examples  of  such  destructors  on 
modern  lines  may  be  found  in  Liverpool,  Not- 
tingham, Glasgow,  Greenock,  London,  and 
many  Continental  towns  and  cities.  Some  of 
these  plants  are  provided  with  a  complete 
electrically-driven  equipment  for  handling  the 
refuse,  so  that  there  is  neither  raking,  shovel- 
ling, nor  handling  of  the  material  by  the  work- 
men until  after  it  has  passed  through  the  puri- 
fying process  of  fire. 

We  describe  as  an  example  a  plant  recently 
erected  at  Greenock,  and  may  mention  that 
plants  on  precisely  similar  principles  have  been 
erected  in  the  borough  of  Poplar,  London,  and 
the  cities  of  Melbourne  (Australia),  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Warsaw  (Russia),  and  Zurich  (Switz- 
erland). 

The  plant  at  Greenock  will  serve  as  a  type 
of  the  rest.  This  consists  of  six  cells  or  fur- 
naces, divided  into  three  batteries,  each  bat- 
tery consisting  of  two  cells,  and 
having  attached  to  it  a  water- 
tube  boiler  of  250  horse-power. 
Forced  draught  is  produced  by  means  of  elec- 
trically-driven high-pressure  fans,  which  draw 
the  air  from  various  parts  of  the  building 
where  ventilation  is  required,  and,  after  pre- 


Qreenock 
Plant. 


liminary  heating,  blow  it  into  the  ash-pits  of 
the  cells.  An  air  pressure  equal  to  about  five 
inches  water  column  of  water  is  maintained 
under  the  grate.  The  rate  of  combustion  is 
about  100  lbs.  per  square  foot  of  grate  per 
hour,  which  is  about  double  the  rate  usually 
obtained  in  the  boilers  of  battleships  under 
forced  draught,  this  with  a  fuel  consisting  en- 
tirely of  rubbish,  and  popularly  supposed  to 
contain  nothing  of  value  whatever. 

The  steam  produced  is  sufficient,  when  used 
in  engines  of  a  modern  type,  to  produce  about 
100  electrical  units  (kilowatt  hours)  for  every 
ton  of  refuse  burnt.  In  other  words,  from  six 
to  seven  tons  of  refuse  produce  an  amount  of 
steam  equivalent  to  that  obtained  by  burning 
a  ton  of  good  coal. 

The  stoking  of  these  furnaces  is  done  by 
means  of  an  overhead  electric  crane.  The  carts, 
on  arriving  at  the  destructor,  tip  their  con- 
tents into  a  series  of  boxes, 
each  capable  of  holding  from 


Automatic 
Stoking. 


one  to  two  cart  loads.  As  the 
carts  come  in  at  irregular  times,  and  the  refuse 
has  to  be  burned  with  strict  regularity,  these 
boxes  are  kept  ready  filled  until  needed,  and 
are  then  lifted  by  the  crane,  and  placed  in  a 
cradle  on  the  top  of  the  furnace,  so  arranged 
that  the  weight  of  the  box  opens  the  door  of 
the  furnace,  thereby  permitting  the  contents 
to  be  dropped  bodily  into  the  destructor,  the 
door  being  automatically  closed  bj'^  the  lifting 
of  the  box.  When  closed,  the  furnace  door 
is  sealed  by  dipping  into  a  water  trough  on 
the  same  principle  as  the  ordinary  gasholder. 

The  labour  of  the  furnacemen  is  thus  con- 
fined to  the  removal  of  incombustible  residue 
from  the  destructor.  This  residue,  known  as 
clinker,  consists  chiefly  of  silica,  and  is  broken 
up  for  making  concrete,  ground  up  with  lime 
to  make  an  excellent  mortar,  or  used  after  fine 
grinding  and  mixing  with  a  small  proportion 
of  lime  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  bricks, 
or  (using  cement  instead  of  lime)  for  the  manu- 
facture of  paving  flags. 


RUNNING    LEAD    INTO    JOINTS. 


(Photo,  by  courtesy  oj  Messrs.  Jamen  Simpson  and  Company,  Limited.) 


THE    COOLGARDIE    AQUEDUCT. 


The  Longest  Aqueduct  in  the  World,  and,  apart  from  its  length,  one  of 

the  most  remarkable. 


THE  aqueduct  which  forms  the  subject 
of  this  article  is  as  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  greatest  engineering  schemes 
carried  through  on  the  Australian  continent 
as  it  is  the  longest  aqueduct  in  the  world. 
The  fact  that  the  volume  of  water  deUvered 
by  it  daily  is  small  as  compared  with  the 
quantity  passed  by  other  aqueducts  noticed 
in  previous  articles  is  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  peculiar  difficulties  with 
which  the  engineers  had  to  contend. 


In  1892  the  great  Coolgardie  goldfield  of 
Western  Australia  was  discovered  by  pros- 
pectors, who  had  spread  over  the  country 
from  the  then  terminus  of  the 
railway  at  Southern  Cross, 
some  235  miles  from  the  coast. 
The  remaining  130  miles  to 
the  goldfields  had  to  be  cov- 
ered in  the  rough  and  ready  way  which 
characterizes  a  "  rush."  A  population  sprang 
up  quickly  in  a  district  wherein  good  drinks 


A  Water 
Famine 
in  the 

Goldfields. 


THE    COOLGARDIE    AQUEDUCT. 


381 


CLOSING    30-INCH    LOCKING-BAR    PIPES    IN   HYDRAULIC    PRESS. 


{Photo,  Messrs.  Mcphan-Fcrguson,  Limited.) 


able  water,  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of 
health,  and  even  water  of  any  kind  for  mining 
purposes,  was  remarkably  scarce,  as  the  little 
rain  that  fell  was  quickly  absorbed  by  the, 
in  most  places,  very  porous  and  saline  surface 
soil.  The  washing-out  of  gold  being  impos- 
sible in  such  circumstances,  the  miners  re- 
sorted to  Ihe  "wind-blowing"  system  of 
separating  alluvial  gold  dust  from  the  dross, 
letting  the  stuff  fall  from  one  pan  held  aloft 
into  another  resting  on  the  ground,  and 
trusting  to  the  force  of  the  wind  for  the 
removal  of  the  light  rubbish. 

The  lack  of  potable  water  caused  epidemics 
of  typhoid  fever,  so  serious  as  to  compel  the 
Government  to  spend  considerable  sums  on 
well-sinking — unfortunately  without  success 
—  and  on  the  construction  of  tanks  and 
dams    and    distilling    installations.      In  those 


Fabulous 

Prices  for 

Water. 


days,  long  after  Coolgardie  had  begun  to  look 
like  a  prosperous  town,  water  fit  for  drinking 
retailed  at  half  a  crown  per 
gallon,  and  the  saying  ran 
that  in  the  saloons  the  bar- 
tender watched  the  water- 
bottle  more  carefully  than  that  which  held 
the  whisky. 

Meanwhile  the  railway  had  been  extended 
from  Southern  Cross  to  Coolgardie  and  Kal- 
goorlie ;  but  the  railroad  authorities  soon 
found     that,     owing     to     the 

shortage  of  water,  they  could        Kailway 
^         ,    .  .    *^  Needs. 

not    run    their    trains    at    a 

profit — the  water  alone  cost  them  some  hun- 
dreds of  pounds  a  day.  As  the  population 
depended  for  its  supplies  on  the  railway,  this 
additional  difficulty  brought  matters  to  a 
crisis,  and  laid  on  the  Government  the  task 


382 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


of  devising  some  scheme  for  supplying  good 
water  in  an  adequate  volume  and  at  reasonable 
prices.  Orders  to  report  on 
practicable    schemes    were    is- 


Qovernment 
takes  Action. 


Pipes. 


The  Scheme. 


sued,  and  after  several  months 
of  surveying  and  estimating  Mr.  C.  G.  O'Connor, 
M.Inst.C.E.,  laid  before  the  Government  the 
three  best  out  of  thirty-one  alternative  pro- 
posals. Of  these  three,  the  one  to  supply 
5,000,000  gallons  per  day,  through  a  steel  pipe 
30  inches  in  diameter,  was  selected  as  the 
basis  of  the  final  scheme. 

The  supply  reservoir  would  be  formed  by 
damming  the  Helena  River  in  the  Darling 
Range,  at  Mundaring,  about  20  miles  from 
Perth.  The  catchment  area 
was  569  square  miles  in  ex- 
tent ;  and  the  authorities  decided  to  provide 
sufficient  storage  to  meet  the  waste  and  use 
of  two  years  in  time  of  total  drought. 

From  the  reservoir  the  water  would  be  led 
by  pipes  to  Kalgoorlie,  over  350  miles  away, 
passing  through  Coolgardie  en  route.  Two 
great  difficulties  faced  the  engineers.  The 
first  was  that  the  reservoir  had  an  elevation 
of  but  340  feet  above  sea-level,  whereas 
Kalgoorlie  lay  about  1,000  feet  higher  still  ; 
while  in  between  were  ranges  of  hills  to  be 
crossed,  one  of  them  rising  to  nearly  1,600 
feet  above  the  sea.  So  that,  instead  of  flowing 
by  gravitation,  as  is  the  case  in  all  other  large 
aqueducts,  the  water  would  have  to  be  forced 
from  point  to  point  for  the  greater  part  of  its 
journey  against  a  total  resistance — allowing 
for  frictional  resistance — equivalent  to  a  single 
lift  of  about  2,650  feet.  In  order  to  bring  the 
pressures  within  practicable  limits,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  divide  the  pipe  line  into 
sections  between  the  main  storage  reservoir 
and  the  highest  point  on  the  route  ;  and  to 
provide  at  the  western  end  of  most  of  the 
sections  a  powerful  pumping  installation,  draw- 
ing its  supply  from  a  stand  pipe  or  a  regulating 
tank. 

The  second  difficulty  related  to  the  question 


bar  Pipe 
adopted. 


of  the  best  kind  of  pipe.  Cast-iron  pipes 
were  put  out  of  court  by  the  cost  of  sea  and 
land  carriage.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  the  pipes  should  be 
of  steel,  for  lightness'  sake,  and  of  such  a 
type  as  to  occupy  a  minimum  space  aboard 
ship.  Tenders  were  invited  from  Australia, 
Europe,  and  America,  and  eventually  the 
Mephan-Ferguson  patent  locking-bar  pipe  was 
adopted.  The  pipe  consists  of  two  steel  plates, 
each  of  the  full  length  of  the  pipe  and  bent  to 
a  semicircular  form.  The  beaded  edges  of  the 
plates  are  inserted  in  long  bars 
having  deep  grooves  on  either  Locking- 

side  ;  and  the  bars  are  closed 
cold  over  the  beads  by  power- 
ful hydraulic  presses.  The  pipes  for  the 
Coolgardie  aqueduct  were  assembled  in  Western 
Australia  out  of  plates  imported  from  Germany 
and  America  and  bars  shipped  from  England. 
Every  pipe,  after  being  assembled,  was  sub- 
jected, in  a  special  apparatus,  to  a  hydraulic 
pressure  of  400  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  and 
returned  to  the  closing  machine  for  re-pressing 
if  it  showed  the  least  symptom  of  leakage. 
It  is  an  interesting  proof  of  the  efficiency  of 
the  locking-bar  system  that  only  about  fifty 
out  of  the  60,000  pipes  required  for  the  line 
failed  to  pass  this  test. 

The  site  of  the  containing  dam  for  the 
storage  reservoir  being  some  miles  from  the 
nearest  railway,  a  light  line  was  built  to 
connect  it  with  that  railway. 
August  1898  saw  the  comple- 
tion of  this  preliminary  work. 
In  April  1899  excavations  for  the  foundations 
of  the  dam  commenced.  On  being  opened 
up  the  rock  was  found  to  be  far  less  solid  than 
trial  pits  had  led  the  engineers  to  think  it 
would  be.  A  great  fissure,  running  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  dam,  was  discovered  ; 
and,  as  the  site  could  not  be  changed,  the 
miners  had  to  follow  this  fissure  to  sound 
rock,  some  90  feet  below  the  river  bed.  The 
foundations  were  formed  of  concrete  to  bed- 


The  Helena 
Dam. 


THE    COOLGARDIE    AQUEDUCT. 


383 


The 
Aqueduct. 


level  on  the  up-stream  face,  but  only  to 
within  18  feet  of  the  bed  on  the  lower  side  ; 
and  on  them  was  raised  a  concrete  dam,  760 
feet  long  and  100  feet  high  above  the  river 
bed,  tapering  in  thickness  from  a  maximum 
of  120  feet  to  15  feet  at  the  crest.  Nearly 
70,000  cubic  yards  of  concrete  were  consumed 
in  its  construction.  A  draw-off  valve  tower 
is  situated  on  the  reservoir  side  of  the  wall, 
into  which  it  is  built ;  and  a  scouring  valve 
tower  rises  at  a  point  175  feet  below  the  dam. 
Provision  is  made  for  drawing  off  water  at  three 
different  levels  through  screens,  which  can  be 
removed  for  cleaning. 

The  Helena  dam,  completed  in  June  1902, 
impounds  a  reservoir  which,  when  full,  con- 
tains about  5,000,000,000  gallons  of  water. 

Operations  connected  with  the  laying  of 
the  pipe  line  were  commenced  in  March  1900. 
To  facilitate  transport  of  materials  the  route 
of  the  aqueduct  followed 
closely  for  the  main  part  that 
of  the  Coolgardie  railway. 
\Miere  the  ground  was  soft  and  not  saline, 
the  pipes  were  buried ;  in  rock  and  hard 
ground,  shallow  trenches  below  and  embank- 
ments above  were  used  ;  and  across  salt  lakes 
or  their  dry  sites  the  pipes  ran  on  trestles, 
an  insulation  of  sawdust,  kept  in  place  by 
galvanized  corrugated  iron,  serving  as  pro- 
tection against  heat  and  cold.  Where  possible, 
the  ground  was  loosened  by  horse-ploughs  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  manual  labour  required. 
One-fourth  of  the  total  material  removed  had 
to  be  blasted.  To  promote  speed,  the  trench- 
ing was  begun  at  several  points  simultaneously, 
and  in  each  section  kept  well  ahead  of  pipe- 
laying. 

All  the  pipes  were  distributed  by  means 
of  the  railway.  Two  cars,  coupled  together, 
carried  eight  pipes,  three  in  each  of  the  two 
bottom  tiers  and  two  on  top.  Eighty-eight 
to  one  hundred  and  four  pipes  made  up  a 
train-load.  Twenty-four  men,  divided  into 
four  gangs,  could  unload  the  pipes  in  about 


an   hour.     When    not    engaged    in    this   work 

the    same    men    busied    themselves    with    the 

trench    digging,    matters    being    so    arranged 

that  no  time  should  be  wasted. 

The    pipes,    laid    out    in    their    respective 

positions    beside    the    trench,    were   taken    in 

hand    by   successive    gangs.     First   came   the 

repairers,  who  made  good  any 

defective  areas  of  pipe  coating  ;       «pe-  ayers 
,    ,  .    ,      ,  /  *^  f  '       at  Work. 

behmd    them    the    men    who 

scraped  off  a  ring  of  the  coating  for  six  inches 
at  each  end  of  every  pipe,  and  chipped  the 
ends  of  the  locking-bars.  Next  in  order  were 
the  manhole-cutters  ;  followed  by  the  pipe- 
layers,  v/ho,  with  the  aid  of  steel  trestles 
spanning  the  trench  and  of  winding  gear, 
lowered  the  pipes  into  place.  Then  came 
the  ring-setters,  the  lead-runners,  the  hand 
caulkers,  and,  last  of  all,  the  gang  in  charge 
of  the  mechanical  caulking-machine. 

This  device  merits  a  few  words  to  itself.     A 
caulking  installation  included  a  portable  oil- 
engine, working  a  dynamo,  from  which  current 
was  led  through  a  cable  to  a 
motor  on   the   machine.     The     Mechanical 

caulker    was    in    two    halves,       ^     .  . 

inachine. 

separable  to  permit  them  to 
embrace  the  main.  The  motor,  attached  to 
the  top  half,  drove  the  racks  operating  the 
steel  rollers  which  forced  the  lead  tightly,  but 
evenly,  into  the  joints  at  either  end  of  the 
joint  ring.  Five  semi-revolutions  of  the  rollers 
usually  sufficed  to  make  the  joint  staunch. 
Knives  were  then  substituted  for  the  rollers 
to  pare  off  the  lead  flush  with  the  rings.  As 
soon  as  the  joint  had  been  "  passed  "  by  an 
inspector  the  trench  was  partially  filled  in. 
completion  of  this  work  being  reserved  for  a 
gang  in  rear  of  the  machine.  About  half  a 
mile  of  pipe  could  be  thus  caulked  without 
moving  the  generating  plant  to  a  fresh  posi- 
tion. Good  organization  and  increasing  skill 
enabled  the  seven  gangs  to  lav,  joint,  and 
cover  up  nearly  Ih  miles  of  pipe  per  day  of 
eight  working   hours.     In    1901,    90   miles   of 


384 


ENGINEERING    WONDERS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


aqueduct  was  completed,   and  the  remaining 
260  miles  in  the  following  year. 

The  first  of  the  pumping  stations  is  located 

about  a  furlong  below  the  Helena  dam.     It 

lifts    the    water    through    IJ    miles    of    pipe, 

against    a    head    of    415    feet. 

Humping       -j^^Q  ^  concrete  receiving  tank. 

Stations  and    „,         ^     ^i  •     •,      .   j_-       tvt      ^ 
„  .  Close  to  this  IS  station  j\o.  2, 

Reservoirs. 

which  raises  the  water  an- 
other 340  feet  to  a  concrete  regulating  tank 
at  Baker's  Hill,  22|  miles  eastwards.  From 
this  tank  the  water  gravitates  to  West 
Northam  regulating  tank,  12  miles  dis- 
tant ;  and  from  it  to  Cunderdin  reservoir — 
another  41  miles — three-quarters  of  a  mile 
beyond  which  is  pumping  station  No.  3. 
The  water  then  gets  six  successive  lifts  at 
stations  Nos.  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  of  215,  333, 
52,  106,  56,  and  183  feet  respectively,  to  the 
great  main  service  reservoir  at  Bulla  Bulling, 
306|  miles  distant  from  the  Helena  dam. 
From  this  reservoir,  which  has  a  capacity  of 
12,000,000  gallons,  the  water  gravitates  to  the 
Coolgardie  and  Kalgoorlie  service  reservoirs, 
which  hold  one  million  and  two  million  gallons 
respectively. 

At  all  of  the 
eight  stations  the 
pumping  plants  are 
practically  identi- 
cal, except  for  the 
diameter  of  the 
pump  -  plungers. 
The  engines,  built 
by  Messrs.  James 
Simpson  and  Co., 
Ltd.,  of  London  and 
Ne'wark,  are  of  the 
Worthington  du- 
plex    six  -  cylinder. 


The  Pumps. 


triple-expansion  type,  with  Corliss  valve  gear. 

Great    care    was   needed,    when    packing   the 

machinery  for  export,  to  avoid 

mistakes,  and   to  ensure  that 

every  one  of  the  twenty  groups  of  machinery 

should  arrive  complete  at  its  proper  station. 

Each  group  w^as  therefore  given  a  distinctive 

colour  and  letter,  and  every  part  painted  with 

the  colour  of  the  group  to  which  it  belonged. 

As  a  result  of  these  precautions  only  a  single 

|-inch  hydraulic  valve  was  reported  missing  out 

of  some  five   thousand  packages   transported 

from    England    to    various    points   along   the 

pipe  line. 

By  the  middle  of  April  1902  pumping  began 

at  station  No.    1,  and  on  the  twenty-second 

day  of  that  month  water  reached  the  Cunderdin 

reservoir,  at  mile  77.     As  each 

section     was     completed     the        *  ,*    . 

1    .  1     r  1  Main. 

water  resumed  its   wonderful 

journey  into  the  heart  of  the  arid  region. 
December  22,  1902,  was  a  red-letter  day  for 
Coolgardie,  for  it  witnessed  the  arrival  of  the 
supply  which  should  thenceforward  guard  the 
citizens  against  the  dangers  and  discomforts  of 
shortage  ;    and  within  a  month  the  Kalgoorlie 

miners  also  were 
^  enjoying  the  use  of 
water  that  had 
travelled  a  distance 
equal  to  that  sepa- 
rating London  from 
Edinburgh. 

The  total  cost  of 
the  scheme  was 
£2,660,000,  of  which 
sum  the  aqueduct 
accounted  for 
£1,870,000,  or 
£5,312  per  mile. 


TESTING  LOCKIXG-BAR    PIPES  \V 
{Photo,  3Iessrs.  Mephan 


ITH  HIGH- PRESSURE  WATER. 
-Ferguson,  Limited.) 


END    OF    VOLUME    III. 


GENERAL     INDEX. 


Abernethy,  James,  I.,  154. 
Adamsou,  Daniel,  I.,  153. 
AERONAUTICS: 
The  Aeroplane,  Theory  and  Prin- 
ciples of,  m.,  5-13. 

Lessons  from  the  kite,  6  ;  "  drift  " 
and  "  lift,"  5  ;  experiments  with 
sliders,  6  ;  shape  of  supporting  sur- 
faces, 6  ;  action  of  air  on  curved 
aeroplane,  7  ;  disposition  of  planes, 
7  ;  monoplanes  and  biplanes,  7  ; 
"  aspect  ratio,"  7  ;  considerations 
regarding  the  design  of  an  aero- 
plane, 8  ;  power  needed  to  support 
an  aeroplane,  8 ;  maintenance  of 
STABiiJTY,  9 ;  centre  of  pressure,  9 ; 
front  elevators,  9  ;  automatic  sta- 
bility, 11  ;  fixed  tails,  11  ;  rear 
elevators,  11  ;  lateral  stability,  11  ; 
Voisin  vertical  curtains,  12  ;  various 
auxiliary  devices,  12  ;  Wrights'  ap- 
paratus for  maintaining  stability 
automatically,  12 ;  the  gyroscope 
a  possible  means  of  stabilizing,  12  ; 
influence  of  speed  on  stability,  12, 
13. 
Flying  Machines  of  To-day,  III., 
15-28. 

The  term  aeroplane,  15 ;  the 
Wright  brothers,  15 ;  experiments 
with  gliders,  15,  10 ;  an  engine 
fitted  to  a  glider,  16  ;  first  great 
human  flights  with  "  White  Flier," 
17  ;  record  -  breaking  flights  in 
France  (1906),  17.  Wright  biplanb 
described,  17,  18 ;  steering  and 
balancing,  18 ;  engine  and  pro- 
pellers, 19 ;  how  the  machine  is 
started,  19.  Voisin  biplane,  21  ; 
steering  control,  21.  Farman  bi- 
plane,   23.      CURTISS    BIPLANE,    24. 

Cody  biplane,  24.  Bl^riot  mono- 
plane, 25,  27.  Antoinette  mono- 
plane, 27.     R.E.P.  monoplane,  28. 

Aeronautical  Engines,  III.,  29-37. 
Need  for  very  light  but  powerful 
engines ;  Maxim's  and  Langley's 
experimental  engines,  29  ;  need  for 
reliability,  efficiency,  and  automatic 
action,  29  ;  how  weight  is  saved, 
30  ;  automatic  lubrication,  30  ;  car- 
buration,  30  ;  possible  decrease  in 
weight,  30.  Four-cylinder  en- 
gines :  Wright  engine,  30,  31  ; 
Oreen,  31,  32.  Three-cylinder 
ENGINE :  Anzani,  32.  Seven-cyl- 
inder ENGINES  :  Gnome,  33,  34  ; 
Clement-Bayard,  34,  35;  R.E.P.,  35. 
Eight  -  cylinder  enoinbs  :  An- 
toinette, 35  ;  Wolseley,  36 ;  Fiat, 
36  ;  Jap,  37  ;  Pipe,  37  ;  Gobron,  37. 

Construction  of  Aeroplanes  and 
Aerial  Propellers,  The,  III., 
39-44. 

An   aeroplane   not   bo   simple   to 


construct  as  its  appearance  suggests, 
39  ;  woods  used,  39  ;  decks,  single 
and  double  surfaced,  39,  41  ;  up- 
rights, wire  stays,  body  work, 
chassis,  41 ;  screw  propellers — thrust, 
42,  43 ;  slip,  43 ;  materials  and 
manufacture,  43,  44. 
Dirigible  Balloons,  III.,  45-63. 

Terminology  —  "  airships  "  and 
"  flying  machines,"  45  ;  shape  of 
gas-holders,  45  ;    prows  and  stems, 

47  ;  resistance  to  the  air,  48  ;  pres- 
sure on  the  envelope,  48  ;  Zeppelin 
principle  of  subdivision,  48 ;  bal- 
lonets,  48  ;   distribution  of  the  load, 

48  ;  application  of  power,  48 ; 
stability,  49 ;  steering,  49.  De- 
velopment OF  THE  airship  :  Gif- 
fard's  dirigible,  49 ;  Dupuy  de 
L3me,  51  ;  Renard  and  Krebs,  51  ; 
Santos  Dumont  and  the  Deutsch 
Prize,  51  ;  "  Zeppelin  I.,"  first  trials, 
52,  53  ;  "  Zeppelin  11.,"  a  disaster, 
53  ;  "  Zeppelin  III.,"  "  Zeppelin 
IV.,"  53  ;  a  trip  over  Switzerland, 
53  ;  voyage  ends  in  disaster,  55  ; 
a  record  journey  of  600  miles,  55  ; 
collision  with  a  tree,  55  ;  (French 
dirigibles)  Lebaudy  airship,  56 ; 
"  La  Patrie  "  and  "  La  Republique," 
56,  57  ;  "  Ville  de  Paris,"  57,  58  ; 
"  Clement-Bayard  L,"  58  ;  "  Cle- 
ment-Bayard II.,"  59 ;  (German 
military  dirigibles)  the  Parseval,  61  ; 
the  Gross,  61  ;  (American)  the 
Baldwin  airship,  62  ;  materials  used 
for  gas  bags,  62 ;  the  dirigible  in 
warfare,  62,  63  ;  Sir  Hiram  Maxim's 
estimation  of  its  value,  63. 

Records  of  Aviation,  III.,  44. 
Records     of     Dirigible     Balloon 
Flights,  IIL,  64. 

African     Transcontinental     Tele- 
graph, The,  I.,  193-204. 

Originated  by  Cecil  Rhodes,  193  ; 
construction  company  incorporated, 
194  ;  line  erected  for  200  miles,  but 
destroyed  in  Matabele  rebellion,  194; 
work  recommenced  along  different 
route,  195  ;  negotiations  with  Ger- 
many, agreement  made,  195  ;  labour 
and  climatic  conditions,  196  ;  pro- 
posed route  of  A.  T.  T.  north  of 
Udjidji,  196,  197  ;  physical  obstacles 
encountered  by  the  engineers,  198  ; 
a  huge  span,  198 ;  the  telegraph 
poles  used,  199 ;  attitude  of  the 
natives,  199  ;  measures  for  prevent- 
ing injury  to  the  line,  199  ;  damage 
done  by  wild  animals  and  by  vegeta- 
tion, 200,  201  ;  health  of  the  con- 
structors, 201  ;  commercial  success, 
201  ;  wireless  telegraphy  suggested 
to  bridge  gap  in  line,  202 ;  police 
patrols,  202 ;  a  stirring  incident,  203 ; 
table  of  distances,  204. 

Agamemnon,    H.M.S.,    used    for    laying 


first  Atlantic  cable,    [I.,  285,  286, 
288,  354.  350-360. 
Agricultural       Engineering,      IIL, 

288-299. 

The  importance  of  agriculture, 
288  ;  value  of  labour-saving  agricul- 
tural machinery,  288.  Steam  til- 
lage :  John  Fowler's  single  engine 
plough  tackle,  289  ;  double  plough 
system,  289  ;  advantages  of  deiip 
ploughing,  290  ;  ploughing  engines, 
290 ;  '  balanced  "  and  "  turn- 
round  "  ploughs,  290,  291  ;  special 
ploughs — a  heath  plough   at  work, 

291,  292  ;  drainage  of  swamps  by 
ploughing,  292 ;    the  Mole  drainer, 

292,  293 ;  seeding  and  planting 
machines,  293  ;  reaping  machines — 
M'Cormick's  reaper  and  its  develop- 
ment, 293,  295 ;  the  self-binder, 
295  ;  the  threshing  machine,  295  ; 
mammoth  reapers,  297  ;  enormous 
steam  tractors,  298.  Agricultural 
OIL  MOTORS :  their  advantages,  298, 
299  ;   Ivel  motor,  299. 

Air-lift,  for  raising  petroleum,  IL,  336 ; 
for  raising  water,  IIL,  345. 

Air-locks,  I.,  68 ;  principle  described. 
304,  305;  for  Runcorn  Bridge 
foundation  cylinders,  294,  298. 

Alfred  the  Great  as  shipbuilder,  L,  313. 

Alpine  Mountain  Railways,  Two 
Remarkable,  III.,  300-311. 

The  Fell  railway  :  schemes  for 
a  line  over  the  Alps,  301  ;  the 
Mont  Cenis  road,  302;  the  Fell 
system  track  and  locomotive,  302  ; 
brakes,  302  ;  locomotive  tested  on 
High  Peak  railway,  302 ;  conces- 
sions granted  for  Fell  railway,  303  ; 
preliminary  experiments  carried  out, 

303  ;  construction  begun,  303  ; 
difficulties  encountered,  303  ;  very 
sharp  curves,  304 ;  snowstorms  and 
snow-sheds,  304,  305 ;  line  com- 
pleted, 304  ;    short   but  useful  life, 

304  ;  economy  of  the  system,  305  ; 
project  for  another  surface  railway 
over  the  Alps,  306.  The  Jungfrau 
RAILWAY  :  M.  Adolph  Guyer  ZcUer's 
scheme,  306  ;  the  stations  on  the 
line,  307  ;  a  railway  in  tunnel,  307  ; 
electric  drills  used  for  boring,  307  ; 
surveying  the  route,  307  ;  track  and 
locomotives,  309 ;  Eigergletscher 
station,  309.  310 ;  rough  weather 
in  winter,  310 ;  Eigerwand  station, 
310;  Eismeer  station,  311;  con- 
clusion, 311. 

Alternating  current,  EQ.,  227. 

Aluminium:  conductors,  lU.,  273;  de- 
crease in  price  of  metal,  272 ; 
separation  in  electric  furnace,  273  ; 
uses  of  metal,  272. 

Anchorages :  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
Bridge,  IIL,  281  ;  Menai  Straita 
Bridge,  I.,  143  ;   Niagara  Falls  and 


0,408) 


25 


VOL.   III. 


Clifton  Bridge,  III.,  283;  Williams- 
burgh  Bridge,  II.,  264 ;  Zambesi 
Bridge,  I.,  97. 

Ancient  Engineering,  I.,  5-20. 

The  engineer  a  great  historian, 
6  ;  Stonehenge,  6 ;  the  stone  "  lines  " 
of  Carnac  in  Brittany,  7  ;  colossal 
Egyptian  statues,  8 ;  Great  Pyramid 
of  Cheops,  9 ;  great  stones  of 
Baalbec,  their  wonderful  finish,  10  ; 
how  did  the  ancients  move  great 
masses  of  stone  ?  1 1 ;  a  suggestion, 
13  ;  Herodotus  on  the  building  of 
the  Pyramids,  14  ;  was  an  inclined 
plane  used  for  the  Pyramids  ?  14  ; 
useful  engineering  feats,  14  ;  Roman 
sewers,  16 ;  Roman  aqueducts, 
astonishing  figures,  16,  17  ;  Roman 
hydraulic  science,  17  ;  Roman 
roads,  18  ;  Hezekiah's  tunnel,  19  ; 
great  Roman  tunnels,  19  ;  tools  of 
the  ancients,  20  ;  a  Roman  metal 
screw,  20  ;  conclusion,  20. 

Ancient  tools,  I.,  19,  20. 

Ancients,  how  they  moved  great  weights, 
I.,  11,  13,  14. 

Anderson,  James,  designs  a  Forth  Bridge, 
I.,  322. 

Angara  river,  I.,  69. 

Angara  train  ferry,  I.,  78. 

Antoinette  monoplane.  III.,  27. 

Appold,    J.    G.,    inventor    of    the    self- 
releasing  brake,  II.,  291. 

AQUEDUCTS: 

Barton  Swing,  over  Manchester 
Ship  Canal,  I.,  163, 165;  British,  see 
"  Great  British  Dams  and  Aque- 
ducts," III.,  177-192;  Catskill,  TIL, 
107-111;  Derwent,  III.,  192;  Elan- 
Birmingham,  III.,  189, 191 ;  Glasgow, 
III.,  179  ;  Kinlochleven,  III.,  275  ; 
Modern,  principles  of,  III.,  179 ;  Now 
Croton,  II.,  105  ;  III.,  99,  100  ;  Old 
Croton,  in.,  98,  99;  Roman,  I.,  16- 
18;  III.,  177;  Solani,  III.,  242; 
Thirlmere-Manchester,  III.,  183-189; 
Vymwy-Liverpool,  III.,  180,  181, 
182,  184. 

Arch,  St.  Louis  Bridge,  IL,  170. 

Arch    Bridges    at    Niagara    Falls, 
The,  IIL,  278-287. 

List  of  bridges  built  across 
Niagara  gorge,  278  ;  need  for  re- 
placing the  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
Bridge,  279  ;  a  steel  arch  bridge 
designed,  279 ;  abutments  and 
skewbacks,  279  ;  anchorages,  281  ; 
adjustment  toggles,  281  ;  travellers 
for  handling  material,  282  ;  bridge 
tested,  282.  Niagara  Falls  and 
Clifton  Bridge,  282 ;  its  huge 
arch  span,  282 ;  details  of  bridge, 
283  ;  clauses  in  contract  specifica- 
tion, 283  ;  difficulties  to  be  over- 
come, 283  ;  method  of  erecting  the 
arch,  283  ;  anchorages  and  anchor- 
age bars,  283 ;  foundations  built, 
cantilevers  commenced,  284  ;  hand- 
ling material,  284  ;  interference  of 
new  arch  with  old  bridge,  285 ; 
climatic  obstacles,  285 ;  quick  con- 
struction, 287  ;  an  ice  jam  and  its 
results,  287. 

Arkansas  river,  II. ,  90. 

Armament  of  a  Battleship,  The,  I., 
404-417. 

Main    armament,    404,    407-412 ; 

secondary  armament,  405,  413,  414  ; 

tertiary     armament,     415 ;       wire- 

^        wound     guns,     408 ;      breech-block 

action,   408 ;     absorption   of  recoil, 


409  ;  gun  mountings,  409  ;  erosion 
and  wash,  410  ;  firing  a  gun,  410  ; 
turrets  and  barbettes,  411  ;  am- 
munition hoists,  411  ;  a  colossal 
gun,    413  ;     6-inch   gun   mountings, 

414  ;    anti-torpedo  craft  armament, 

415  ;  disposition  of  armament,  416  ; 
various  systems,  416,  417. 

Armour  of  a  Battleship,   The,   I., 
397-403. 

Early  armour,  397 ;  the  Warrior, 
first  British  ironclad,  399 ;  com- 
pound armour,  399 ;  Harvey  and 
Krupp  processes,  399 ;  manufac- 
ture of  steel,  399,  401  ;  how  armour 
is  supported  or  backed,  401  ;  fix- 
ing armour  to  backing,  401  ;  ar- 
moured decks,  402  ;  capped  shells 
and  their  penetrative  power,  402  ; 
"Era"  steel  and  reinforced  concrete 
armour,  403. 

Armoured  decks,  I.,  402. 

Arnodin,  F.,  I.,  289,  291. 

Artesian  Wells,  and  How  They  are 
Bored,  IIL,  335-346. 

Ancient  wells,  335 ;  artesian 
wells,  335 ;  rainfall,  subterranean 
streams,  and  springs,  336 ;  dug 
wells,  their  defects,  336 ;  lining 
artesian  wells,  337  ;  boring  tools — 
chisels,  ropes,  and  rods,  337  ;  the 
diamond  drill,  338  ;  the  calyx  drill, 
338  ;  the  shot  drill,  its  principle, 
339 ;  detaching  cores,  339 ;  re- 
trieving broken  rods,  340  ;    blasting, 

341  ;     rescuing    and    cutting   pipes, 

342  ;  a  curious  case  of  flints  cutting 
tools,  342 ;  American  wells,  343 ; 
a  great  artesian  area  in  the  United 
States,  343  ;  power  from  wells,  343  ; 
Australian  wells,  344 ;  sinking  a 
well,  344  ;  the  air-lift,  its  principle, 
345  ;  disadvantages  and  advantages 
of  the  air-lift,  346. 

Artesian  Wells  of  Australia,  The, 
n.,  312-320. 

An  Australian  drought,  312 ;  first 
artesian  bore  in  Australia,  312 ; 
what  an  "  artesian  basin  "  is,  313  ; 
a  vast  artesian  basin  in  Australia, 
313,  314,  315 ;  hot  wells,  317  ; 
Chinese   methods    of    well  -  sinking, 

319  ;  the  modern  system,  319,  320  ; 
facts  and  figures  about  the  wells, 

320  ;  financial  success  of  well-sink- 
ing, 320. 

Asphalt  deposits,  Trinidad  pitch  lake,  II., 

325. 
Assiout  barrage,  IL,  399,  401-404. 
Assisted    shield    method    of    tunnelling 

through    water-logged    ground,    I., 

306,  307. 
Assouan  quarries,  I.,  8  ;  II. ,  393. 
Automatic  ore  tips,  III.,  262 ;    stokers, 

230. 

B 

Baalbec,  great  stones  of,  I.,  10,  11. 

Baikal,  Lake,  ILL,  89. 

Baikal,    train     ferry,     I.,    65-79 ;    IIL, 

90 ;  see  "  Building  of  the  Train-Ferry 

Baikal." 
Baker,    Sir   Benjamin,    designer   of   the 

Forth    Bridge,    I.,     322 ;      evolves 

scheme   for   raising   Assouan    dam, 

IL,  407. 
Balayeur,  the,  I.,  247. 
Balloons,    dirigible,    IIL,    45-63 ;      see 

"  Aeronautics,"  Dirigible  Balloons. 
Barbettes,  L,  401. 
Barking  outfall  works,  IIL,  215. 

[386  ] 


Barlow,  P.  W.,  projector  of  "  omnibus  '" 

tunnels,  I.,  227. 
Barmen -Elberf eld    Railway,    The» 

II. ,  125-128. 

Locality  of  the  railway,  125  ;  the- 
track,  125  ;  track  girders,  126  ;  how^ 
the  carriages  are  supported,  126 ; 
electric  current  supply  to  motors^ 
127  ;  rolling  stock,  127  ;  cost  of 
construction,  127 ;  curves,  speed,^ 
and  trafiic,  128, 

Bartholdi,  Auguste,  designer  of  the- 
statue  of  Liberty,  III.,  250,  252. 

Barton  swing  aqueduct  over  the  Man- 
chester Ship  Canal,  I.,  166. 

Bateman,  J.  F.  Latrobe,  ILL,  189. 

Battleships,  I.,  385-390 ;  see  "  Arma- 
ment of  a  Battleship,"  "  Armour  of 
a  Battleship,"  "  How  a  Battleship 
is  fought." 

Bazalgette,  Sir  Joseph,  draws  up  plans 
for  draining  London,  IIL,  211,  212. 

Beam,  continuous,  I.,  103. 

Bears  in  railway  camp,  L,  26,  27. 

Bedplates  of  Forth  Bridge  towers,  I.,_ 
329,  330. 

Beirut,  I.,  341. 

Bell  Rock  lighthouse,  L,  372,  373. 

Bending  moment  of  a  beam,  I.,  103. 

Bergen  -  Kristiania  Railway,  The 
Construction  of  the,  IIL,  347- 
356. 

The  route  of  the  railway,  347  ; 
its  elevation  compared  with  that  of 
other  railways,  348  ;    early  history, 

348  ;     mountain    section    surveyed, 

349  ;  building  transport  roads,  351  ; 
roads  completed,  351  ;  materials 
for  track  brought  into  mountains, 
351  ;  climatic  obstacles,  352  ;  winter 
work  in  the  tunnels,  352  ;  clearing 
away  the  snow,  353  ;  high  wages 
and  isolation,  353;  the  Gravehal" 
tunnel,  355;  Italian  miners  iin 
ported,  355  ;  hard  times  at  Myrdal. 
355  ;  snow  blockades,  355  ;  tunnel 
completed,  355  ;  snow-ploughs  and 
snow-screens,  356 ;  a  railway  for 
tourists,  356. 

Bessemer  process  of  steel  making.  III. ,  264. 

Bishop  Rock  lighthouses,  I.,  377-384. 

Blanchard,  C.  J.,  on  "  Irrigation  in  the 
United  States,"  IL,  81-102. 

Blast  furnace,  as  gas  producer,  I.,  219; 
its  principle.  III.,  261. 

Blast  furnace  gas,  used  to  heat  stoves 
and  raise  steam,  I.,  219  ;  first  use 
for  gas  engines,  219  ;  methods  of 
cleaning,  220,  221  ;  vast  power 
available  from,  224  ;  diagram  show- 
ing blast  furnace  and  gas  engine  in 
series,  225. 

Blasting,  cliffs  at  Fishguard  Bay,  I.^  174, 
175,  176 ;  rock  on  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  I.,  275;  snow  on  Bergen - 
Kristiania  Railwav,  IIL,  352;  wreck 
in  Suez  Canal,  L,  252. 

Bleichert,  Adolph,  and  Co.,  I.,  121. 

Bleriot,  Louis,  IIL,  11 ;  his  monoplane, 
IIL,  25. 

"  Block  coefficient,"  in  shipbuilding,  I., 
352. 

Block  system,  for  working  Suez  Canal, 
I.,  253 ;  see  "  Signalling,  Rail- 
way." 

"  Blow-outs  "  from  subaqueous  tunnel 
works,  L,  308;  IL,  120." 

Boilers:  Babcock  and  Wilcox,  II.,  32; 
Baikal's,  I.,  77 ;  Belleville,  II.,. 
32  ;  locomotive,  see  "  T/Ocomotives 
of  To-day  ;  "   Mauretania's,  IL,  39  ;; 


Scotch  marine,  II.,  31  ;   water  tube, 
II.,  32;   Yarrow.  II..  32. 

Booth,  W.  H  ,  on  "  The  Dovolopmont  of 
the  Gas  Engine,"  I.,  215  ;  on  "  Ar- 
to.sian  Wells,  and  How  they  are 
Bored,"  HI.,  335. 

Bouch,  Sir  Thomas,  designer  of  a  Forth 
Bridge,  I.,  322. 

Brakes,  railway,  II.,  240-251  ;  see 
"  Railway  Brakes  ;  "  Fell  system 
of.  III.,  302. 

Brandt  roc  k  boiiug  drill,  HI.,  153. 

BREAKWATERS  (see  "  Harbour  Con- 
struotion") : 

Aberdeen,  IIT.,  76  ;  Alderney,  III., 
73  ;  Algiers,  III..  74  ;  Cherbourg, 
III.,  70  ;  Dover,  III.,  78,  79  ;  Fish- 
guard Harbour,  1.,  17G  ;  Gibraltar, 
in.,  75;  Holyhead,  III.,  73;  La 
Guaira,  III.,  76 ;  Marseilles,  II., 
176.  177;  Plymouth,  III.,  70-72; 
Portland,  III.,  74;  Port  Said,  I., 
245 ;  Vera  Cruz,  III.,  76 ;  Zeebrugge, 
III.,  75. 

Brennan  Louis,  his  torpedo,  I.,  438. 

Brett,  John  Wat  kins,  a  founder  of  the 
Atlantic  Telegraph  Company,  II., 
280  ;  director  of  Atlantic  Telegraph 
Company,  282  ;   death,  374. 

BRIDGES  r 
Bridge,  The  Development  of  the, 
L,  102-107. 

Carrying  power  of  a  beam,  103  ; 
application  of  load,  103  ;  support 
ot  a  beam,  103  ;  continuous  girder, 
103 ;  shearing  stress,  104 ;  plate 
girders,  104 ;  parabolic  or  bow- 
string girders,  104  ;  trusses,  105  ; 
"  king  '  and  "  queen  "  trusses,  105  ; 
Warren  truss,  105  ;  lattice  girder, 
105  ;  suspension  bridges,  106  ;  canti- 
lever bridges,  lOG  ;  bridge  abut- 
ments and  piers,  107. 
Bridges,  Bascule,  II.,  46;  Black- 
well's  Island  cantilever,  II., 
270-272;  Britannia  tubular,  I., 
147-152  ;  Brooklyn  suspension,  II., 
257,  259,  260,  261  ;  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  L,  279;  Clifton 
suspension,  I.,  288  ;  Croton  aque- 
duct, II.,  273  ;  Forth,  L,  321-337, 
see  "  Forth  Bridge,  the  Story  of 
the;"  Grand  Trunk  Railway  arch, 
m.,  278-282  ;  Hell  Gate  arch,  New 
York,  II.,  274  ;  Henry  Hudson 
memorial  arch,  II.,  274,  275  ;  Irtysh, 
III.,  87  ;  Kafue,  IL,  160 ;  Man- 
hattan suspension,  II.,  266-270 ; 
Manhattan  Valley,  II.,  274  ;  Menai 
Straits  suspension,  Telford's,  I.,  142- 
146;  Niagara  Falls,  IIL,  278-287, 
■see  "Arch  Bridges  of  Niagara  Falls; " 
Oxus,  n.,  379  ;  Roman,  L,  18,  19  ; 
Royal  Albert,  Saltash,  L,  34-40,  see 
"  Royal  Albert  Bridge  at  Saltash ;  " 
St.  Lawrence  tubular,  I.,  205-214, 
see  "  Victoria  Bridge,  the  Great  ;  " 
St.  Louis,  IL,  103-171,  see  "St. 
Louis  Bridge  ;  "  Salisbury,  11.,  53  ; 
Scherzor  rolling  lift,  II. ,  44-49,  see 
"  Scherzer ;  "  Sittang,  IL,  433- 
437,  see  "  Bridge  Building  Feat,  an 
Interesting ;  "  swing,  IL,  44 ;  Switch- 
back Canyon  cantilever,  I.,  33 ; 
Tower,  II. ,  40;  transporter,  I.,  287- 
299,  see  "  Transporter  Bridges  ;  " 
Victoria  tubular,  I.,  205-214,  see 
"  Victoria  Bridge,  the  Great ; " 
Walnut  Lane,  Philadelphia,  II. , 
275  ;  Williamsburgh,  II. ,  261-266  ; 
Yenesei,  III.,  85  ;    Zambesi,  L,  90- 


101,     see     "  Zambesi     Bridge,     the 
Great." 
Bridge  Building; Feat,  an  Interest- 
ing: the  Sittang  Bridge,  Burma, 

II. ,  433-437. 

The  river  Sittang,  433 ;  native 
workmen,  434  ;  first  season's  work 
on  the  bridge,  434  ;  difticulty  with 
centre  spans,  434  ;  a  novel  scheme 
for  floating  them  into  position,  434, 
435  ;  the  "  Dreadnought  "  pontoon, 
435  ;  a  tremendous  storm,  435 ; 
floating  first  span,  436  ;  last  span 
floated,  bridgocorapleted  and  opened, 
436,  437. 
Bridges  of  New  York  City,  The, 
II. ,  257-276. 

Now  York  a  city  of  great  bridges, 
257,  258  ;  need  for  these  bridges  e.K- 
plained,  258,  259,  260 ;  ferry  service, 
259  ;  traffic  figures  for  all  means  of 
transport  across  river,  259.  Brook- 
lyn Bridge  :  John  A.  Roebling 
offers  to  build  it,  200 ;  notable 
features  of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge, 
200  ;  strengthening  the  bridge,  201. 
Williamsburgh  Bridge  :  main 
points  of  interest,  202 ;  construc- 
tion work,  sinking  pneumatic  cais- 
sons for  pier  foundations,  203 ;  piers 
and  towers,  203,  264  ;  anchorages, 
204 ;  shore  spans  erected,  204 ; 
spinning  the  cables,  204,  205 ; 
wrapping  the  cables,  205,  200 ; 
building  the  stiffening  trusses,  206  ; 
an  accident,  260.  Manhattan 
Bridge  :  characteristics  and  dimen- 
sions, 200,  207  ;  footbridges  for  the 
cable  work,  207  ;  cable-spinning 
apparatus,  208  ;  cable-spinning  de- 
scribed at  length,  208,  209,  270. 
Blackwell's  Island  or  Queens- 
BORO  Bridge  :  dimensions,  271 ; 
design,  272 ;  "  travellers,"  272. 
Other  large  bridges  :  High 
Bridge,  273 ;  Washington  Bridge, 
273  ;  Manhattan  Valley,  274  ;  three 
proposed  monster  bridges,  274,  275, 
276. 
Bridges  of  the  Menai  Straits,  The, 
I.,  142-152. 

Travelling  to  the  west  coast  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  142  ;  Tel- 
ford makes  the  great  road  to  Holy- 
head, 142  ;  decides  to  bridge  the 
Menai  Straits,  142.  The  Menai 
Suspension  Bridge  :  plans  drawn 
up  and  approved,  143 ;  building 
the  piers,  143  ;  anchoring  the  sus- 
pension chains,  143  ;  hoisting  chains 
into  position,  144  ;  joining  up,  144  ; 
a  workman's  foolhardy  feat,  145 ; 
bridge  opened,  145 ;  facts  and 
figures,  145 ;  the  Conway  Bridge, 
147.  The  Britannia  Bridge:  the 
Chester  -  Holyhead  railway,  147  ; 
railway  bridge  required  for  the 
Menai  Straits,  147  ;  arch  bridge 
planned  by  Robert  Stephenson,  but 
disallowed  by  Admiralty,  147  ;  plans 
for  a  tubular  bridge,  li7,  148;  its 
chief  features,  148  ;    the  huge  tubes, 

148  ,•  work  of  erection  begun,  149  ; 
the  towers,  149  ;  riveters  and  rivets, 

149  ;  preparations  for  floating  the 
first  tube,  149 ;  hydraulic  presses 
employed,   150 ;    first  tube  floated, 

150  ;  a  mishap,  and  a  rescue,  150  ; 
raising  the  tube,  151  ;  a  serious 
disaster    averted     by    precautions, 

151  ;     all    tubes   in   position,    162 ; 

[  .387  1 


testing  the  bridge,  152  ;    an  appro- 

ciation  of  the  work,  152. 

Bridgowater  canal,  the,  I.,  150. 

Bright,  Charles,  on  "  Early  Atlantic 
Cables,"  n.,  277-294,  35.5  374  ; 
on  "  ITie  Construction  and  Laying 
of  Submarine  Cables,  IIL,  367-378. 

Bright,  Edward,  IL,  277. 

Bright,  Sir  Charles  Tilston,  engin«>er  of 
the  Magnetic  Company,  II.,  277  ; 
makes  agreement  with  Brett  and 
Field  to  form  the  Atlantic  Telegraph 
Company,  280  ;  ongineor-in-chief  of 
the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Company, 
282  ;  champions  largo  conductor  for 
first  Atlantic  cable,  283  ;  desires  to 
lay  cable  from  mid-ocean  both  ways, 
287  ;  adopts  Appold  brake  for  cable 
work,  291  ;  his  paying-out  gear, 
291.  292  ;  starts  with  second  ex- 
pedition in  charge  of  Agamemnon, 
350 ;  at  landing  of  first  Atlantic 
cable,  300  ;  his  work  appre<'iated  in 
the  Times,  301  ;  receives  honour  of 
knighthood,  303  ;  appreciation  by 
Lord  Kelvin,  304  ;  reports  on  failure 
of  cable,  364 ;  recommends  type 
for  1865  cable,  365  ;  prevented  from 
a.ssisting  with  1866  cable,  309 ; 
localizes  faults  in  1865  and  1806 
cables,  374. 

Brindley,  James,  I.,  156  ;  his  demonstra- 
tion of  the  use  of  clay  for  canals, 
157. 

Britannia,  the,  I.,  315. 

Broken  Hill,  II ,  159. 

Brooke  "  sounder,"  IL,  278,  279. 

Brunei,  Isanibard  Kingdom  (Brunei  the 
Younger),  as.sists  his  father  in 
Thames  Tunnel  works,  I.,  188 ; 
rescues  miners,  189 ;  nearly  drowned, 
189  ;  designer  and  engineer  of  the 
Royal  Albert  Bridge,  34;  scheme 
for  a  harbour  at  Fishguard  Bay,  J., 
173  ;  originator  of  the  broad  gauge 
of  the  Great  Western  Railway,  109  ; 
designer  of  Great  Britain  and  Great 
Eastern,  316  ;  death,  40. 

Brunei,  Marc  Isambard  (Brimel  the 
Elder),  I.,  181  ;  early  history,  182  ; 
appointed  engineer  of  the  Thames 
Timnel  Company,  183  ;  resigns  the 
office,  190  ;  knighted,  191  ;  stricken 
with  paralysis,  192  ;  first  engineer 
to  use  a  movable  tunnelling  shield, 
227. 

Buck,  L.  L.,  engineer-in-chief  of  the 
Niagara  arch  bridges,  lU.,  279, 
283. 

Buckle,  A.  Stewart,  on  "  An  Interesting 
Bridge-Building  Feat,"  IL,  433. 

Building  of  the  Train-Ferry 
•♦  Bail<al,"  The,  L,  65-78. 

A  short  description  of  the  vessel, 
66,  66  ;  accommodation  for  trains, 
67  ;  accommodation  for  passengers, 
67 ;  engines  and  propellers,  67  ; 
vessel  built  at  Newcastle  and  taken 
to  pieces,  6S ;  parts  shipped  to 
Russia,  08  ;  official  blundering,  68  ; 
difficulties  of  transport,  OS,  09  ;  the 
Angara  River,  strong  rapids,  09,  70 ; 
the  shij)yard  on  I^ake  Baikal,  71  ; 
keel  laid,  71  ;  intense  cold  of  Siberian 
winter,  72 ;  labour  troubles,  72 ; 
framing  the  vessel,  73  ;  plating,  73  ; 
shell  completed,  73  ;  building  the 
launching  ways,  74  ;  "  freezing  out  " 
process,  74 ;  the  launching  ways 
give  trouble,  76  ;  the  launch,  76  ; 
the    Baikal    natives,    76 ;     putting 


boilers  aboard,  77  ;    trial  runs,  78  f 
the  Angara,  78. 
Building  the  Statue  of  Liberty,  III., 

250-256. 

Inception  of  the  scheme,  250 ; 
the  statue  a  gift  from  France  to 
the  United  States,  250 ;  principal 
dimensions  of  the  statue,  251  ;  how 
the  model  was  prepared,  252 ; 
moulding  the  pieces,  252 ;  the 
copper  shell,  253  ;  internal  stiffen- 
ing bars,  253 ;  the  supporting 
framework,  253 ;  foundations  for 
pedestal,  255  ;  the  pedestal,  256  ; 
erecting  the  statue,  255 ;  weight, 
cost,  etc.,  of  statue,  256  ;  inaugura- 
tion ceremony,  256. 

Buoys  for  submarine  cables.  III.,  369, 371. 

Burgoyne,  Alan  H.,  on  "  The  Armour 
of  a  Battleship,"  I.,  397  ;  on  "  The 
Armament  of  a  Battleship,"  I.,  404  ; 
on  "  The  Development  of  Torpedo 
Craft,"  I.,  418 ;  on  "  Submarine 
Boats,"  I.,  427  ;  on  "  Torpedoes," 
I. ,  433  ;  on  "  How  a  Battleship  is 
Fought,"  I.,  442;  on  "The  War- 
ship of  the  Future,"  I.,  453. 

Burne,  E.  Lancaster,  on  "  The  Develop- 
ment of  the  Bridge,"  I.,  102  ;  on 
"  The  Electric  Power-Stations  of 
London,"  IIL,  226. 

Bythell,  John  Kenworthy,  I.,  158. 


CABLES,  SUBMARINE  {see 
"Early  Atlantic  Cables"): 
Cables,  Submarine,TheConstruc- 
tion  and  Laying  of,  III.,  357-376. 
Construction  {see  II.,  283,  285, 
365,  366,  369) :  conductors,  357  ; 
insulation  of  conductors,  358 ;  gutta- 
percha covering  machine,  358  ; 
mechanical  protection,  359  ;  armour, 
359 ;  manufacture,  359 ;  rate  of, 
360 ;  jointing  and  splicing,  360  ; 
testing,  360  ;  types — "  shore  end," 
360  ;  "  intermediate,"  360  ;  "  deep- 
sea  "  main,  361.  Cable  laying  : 
survey,  preliminary  submarine,  361  ; 
telegraph  ships — Colonia,  362 ;  Silver- 
town,  362 ;  Faraday,  365  ;  Iris,  365 ; 
Telconia,  365  ;  shipment  of  cable, 
365  ;  stowage  of  cable  aboard  ship, 
365  ;  paying-out  gear,  366  {see  II., 
285,  292,  294,  369) ;  dynamometer 
gear,  367  ;  holding-back  gear,  368  ; 
picking-up  gear,  368  {see  II,  369)  ; 
buoys  and  buoying,  369 ;  pro- 
gramme for  laying,  370 ;  testing  hut, 
370 ;  landing  shore  end,  371 ;  splicing 
on  main  cable,  371  ;  laying  main 
cable,  373  ;  attaching  main  cable 
to  farther  buoyed  end,  374  ;  testing 
of  the  cable,  375.  Conclusion  : 
world's  cable  system,  375  ;  statistics, 
375  ;   wireless  telegraphy,  375. 

Cables,  suspension  bridge :  Brooklyn 
Bridge,  11.,  260,  261  ;  Manhattan 
Bridge,  IL,  267-270;  Transporter 
Bridge,  L,  291,  294,  298,  299; 
Williamsburgh  Bridge,  XL,  262,  264- 
266. 

Cableways,  various  systems  of,  I.,  128  ; 
Famatina  cableway,  see  "  Ropeway 
in  the  Andes,  a  Wonderful  Aerial." 

Caissons,  City  Investing  Building  foun- 
dation, IL,  5  ;  floating,  to  close  lock 
entrances,  11.,  186 ;  Forth  Bridge 
pier  foundations,  pneumatic,  I.,  325- 
328  •   Kafue  Bridge  piers,  11.,  160  ; 


Rotherhithe  Timnel  shaft,  pneu- 
matic, I.,  54-56 ;  St.  Louis  Bridge 
pier,  pneumatic,  II.,  167,  169; 
Thames  Tunnel  shaft,  open  brick,  L, 
183  ;  Victoria  Bridge,  open  timber, 
I.,  207. 

"  Camels "    for   raising   sunken  vessels, 
L,  43. 

Camp,  railroad,  life  in,  L,  260,  265,  273. 

Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  The  Con- 
struction of  the,  L,  257-286. 

Origin  of  the  C.P.R.,  257  ;  con- 
structional difficulties  to  be  faced, 
257 ;  political  difficulties,  258  ; 
public  tenders  called  for,  contract 
granted  to  a  syndicate,  258  ;  terms 
of  contract,  258 ;  surveys  begun, 
258  ;  Sandford  Fleming  crosses  the 
Rockies  and  selects  route,  259  ;  a 
fresh  start  made,  260.  Lake  Su- 
PKRiOR  section,  260 ;  gauge  and 
weight  of  rails  for  C.P.R.,  260 ; 
camp  regulations,  260  ;  heavy  rock 
work  round  Lake  Superior,  261  ; 
filling  in  swamps,  261  ;  high  bridges, 
261.  The  Prairie  section  :  cut- 
tings to  be  avoided,  263 ;  staff 
organization,  263 ;  subdivision  of 
work,  263,  264  ;  marking  out  the 
route,  263 ;  forming  the  dump, 
264  ;  troublesome  "  muskegs,"  264  ; 
protection  against  snow  in  prairies, 
265 ;  camp  life,  265 ;  mortality 
among  horses,  266  ;  movable  hotels, 
266  ;  laying  the  track,  267  ;  station 
building,  267  ;  work  done  fast  but 
thoroughly,  268.  The  Mountain 
SECTIONS :  in  the  Rockies,  270 ; 
Chinese  labour,  270  ;  labour  prob- 
lems, 270 ;  prospecting  a  route  in 
the  mountains,  270 ;  Rogers  dis- 
covers Rogers  Pass,  271,  272 ;  rail- 
roading in  the  mountains,  273  ; 
terrific  obstacles,  273  ;  a  mountain 
construction  camp,  273  ;  trials  of 
the  navvy,  274  ;  blasting  rock,  274  ; 
accidents,  274,  275  ;  a  comic  escape, 
275  ;  winter  work,  275  ;  tunnelling, 
275  :  the  "  Great  Divide,"  276  ; 
heavy  gradients,  277  ;  stiff  climb 
near  Hector,  277  ;  safety  switches, 
278  ;  fresh  location  of  track  near 
Hector,  278 ;  bridge  work,  279  ; 
pile  driving,  279 ;  Stoney  Creek 
bridge,  280 ;  cold  and  dangerous 
work,  280  ;  snow-sheds,  280,  281  ; 
the  "  Loops,"  281  ;  the  rails  meet, 
a  dramatic  scene,  last  spike  driven, 
283  ;  what  the  C.P.R.  has  done  for 
Canada,  284,  285  ;  great  hotels  of 
the  C.P.R.,  Empress  Hotel,  Victoria, 
285. 

CANALS: 

Transportation  :  Albemarle  and 
Chesapeake,  IH.,  175  ;  Bridgowater, 
I.,  156  ;  Chicago  drainage,  IIL,  172, 
173  ;  Florida  (proposed).  III.,  175  ; 
Illinois  and  Michigan,  IIL,  174 ; 
Lake  Borgne,  IIL,  174 ;  Lynn,  I., 
23;  Manchester  Ship,  I.,  153-171, 
see  "  Manchester  Ship  Canal ;  "  New 
Erie,  IIL,  168,  169;  Nile  to  Red 
Sea,  I.,  14  ;  Old  Erie,  HI.,  163,  165, 
167 ;  Panama,  11.,  129-149,  see 
"  Panama  Canal ;  "  Pennsylvania, 
IIL,  175;  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  IIL, 
170,  171  ;  Suez,  L,  241-256,  see 
"  Suez  Canal ;  "  United  States,  see 
"  Transportation  Canals  of  the 
United  States."  Irrigation  :  Ibra- 
himiyeh,  Egypt,  TI.,  399;  Indian — 

[  388  ] 


Bari  Doab,  IIL,  240,  241  ;  Chenab, 
IIL,  234-237,  239;  Ganges,  IIL, 
241,  242  ;  United  States,  II. ,  87. 

Canals  v.  railways,  IIL,  164. 

Cantilever,  meaning  of  word,  I.,  322  ; 
bridges,  I.,  106;  of  Forth  Bridge, 
L,  323,  334,  335. 

Cape  to  Cairo  Railway,  The,  IL, 
150-162. 

Cecil  Rhodes's  project,  150 ;  road 
built  in  sections  from  Vryburg  north- 
wards, 151  ;  Bulawayo  reached. 
152  ;  negotiation  with  the  Govern- 
ment for  assistance,  152 ;  unsuc- 
cessful negotiations  with  the  German 
Emperor,  152 ;  progress  of  the  line, 
new  route  chosen  north  of  Bulawayo, 
153 ;  the  Zambesi  bridged,  154 ; 
transport  of  material,  154,  155  ;  an 
anecdote  about  Sir  William  Har- 
court,  156  ;  stirring  incidents,  156  ; 
encounters  with  lions,  156,  157  ; 
the  native  attitude,  157  ;  the  labour 
question,  158  ;  traffic  returns,  158  ; 
extension  to  Broken  Hill,  159 ; 
Kafu6  Bridge,  160  ;  future  develop- 
ments, 160  ;  a  Belgian  line  into  the 
Congo  Free  State,  161  ;  another 
line  to  Lake  Tanganyika,  161  ; 
German  projects,  161  ;  table  of 
distances,  162. 

Capitol  at  Washington,  I.,  9. 

Capped  shells,  I.,  402. 

Car  of  transporter  bridges,  I.,  289,  291, 
297,  299. 

Carey  Act,  promoting  irrigation  in  the 
United  States,  11.,  92. 

Camac,  monuments  at,  I.,  6,  7,  8. 

Catskill  Mountains,  m.,  103. 

Chagres  River,  II. ,  139. 

Chanute,  Octave,  HI.,  21. 

Charlotte  Dundas,  the,  I.,  314. 

Chat  Moss,  The  Conquest  of,  L, 
368,  369. 

Chatham,  the,  in  Suez  Canal,  I.,  252. 

Cherbourg  Digue,  IIL,  70. 

Cliicago  underground  freight  subways, 
I.,  359-367,  see  "  Underground 
Freight  Subways  of  Chicago." 

Chinese  labour  on  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way, L,  270  ;  methods  of  well-sink- 
ing, n.,  319. 

Churches,  underpinning  —  Winchester 
Cathedral,  HL,  312;  Holy  Trinity, 
Hull,  315  ;  St.  Mary  Woolnoth,  317. 

Clement- Bayard  airship,  IIL,  58,  59. 

Cleopatra's  Needle,  The  Story  of, 
II. ,  22-28. 

Needle  quarried  at  Assouan  and 
taken  to  Heliopolis,  22 ;  removed 
by  Augustus  to  Alexandria,  23 ; 
acquired  for  Great  Britain  by  Sir 
Ralph  Abercromby,  23  ;  plans  for 
transportation,  24  ;  obelisk  encased 
in  iron  cylinder,  25 ;  difficulties 
in  laimching,  25;  the  Cleopatra 
breached  and  repaired,  26  ;  voyage 
to  England  commences,  26  ;  Cleo- 
patra cast  adrift  in  a  storm,  27  ; 
lost,  found,  and  brought  into  the 
Thames,  27  ;  re-erection  of  the 
needle  on  the  Thames  Embank- 
ment, 28 ;  list  of  objects  placed 
inside  pedestal,  28 ;  other  trans- 
portation feats  of  a  similar  nature, 
28. 

Clerk,  Dugald,  invents  double-acting  gas 
engine,  I.,  217. 

Clermont,  the,  I.,  314. 

Cleveland  Bridge  Company,  I.,  95. 

Clifton  Suspension  Bridge,  I.,  288. 


Coal  tip  at  Partington  coal  basin,  I., 
168. 

Cochrane,  Sir  Thomas,  patentee  of  tunnel- 
ling with  the  aid  of  compressed  air, 
I..  303. 

Cody  biplane,  m.,  24. 

Coefficient,  propulsive,  in  ship  design, 
I.,  356. 

Cold,  effect  of  on  iron  and  steel,  I.,  72. 

Colorado  River  Closure,  The,  III., 
113-121. 

The  Colorado  River,  113;  Cali- 
fornia Development  Company  fonuod 
to  use  its  waters  for  irrigation,  113  ; 
an  irrigation  canal  made,  113 ;  a 
serious  mishap,  river  bursts  its 
banks,  115  ;  first  attempt  to  close 
breach  with  piles  and  sandbags, 
115 ;  second  attempt,  116 ;  third 
attempt,  117 ;  fourth  attempt, 
engineers  try  to  divert  water,  117  ; 
fifth  attempt,  a  largo  dam  com- 
menced, 119  ;  water  breaks  through, 
119;  sixth  attempt,  a  failure,  119, 
120 ;  seventh  attempt,  success  at 
last,  121. 

Colossal  Tool,  A,  H.,  382-384. 

Colossi,  Egyptian,  I.,  8. 

Columbus's  flagship,  the  Santa  Maria,  I., 
313. 

Comet,  the,  I.,  314. 

Composite  iron  and  wood  ships,  I.,  316. 

Compressed  air  for  tunnelling,  I.,  67,  see 
"  Tunnelling" 

Construction  of  the  First  American 
Transcontinental  Railroad.The, 
III.,  129-147. 

Early  difficulty  of  crossing  the 
continent,  129  ;  Asa  Whitney  sug- 
gests a  railway,  129 ;  gold  dis- 
covered in  California,  130  ;  Panama 
railroad  built,  130  ;  United  States 
Government  has  surveys  made  for 
railroad,  131  ;  hostility  of  the 
Indians,  131  ;  Omaha  to  be  the 
western  starting-point,  131  ;  Cen- 
tral Pacific  Company  formed,  131  ; 
Congress  subsidizes  Union  Pacific 
and  Central  Pacific  Companies,  131  ; 
a  start  made,  but  fimds  exhausted,  I 
132  ;  the  second  charter,  132.  The 
Union  Pacific  begun  at  Omaha, 
133 ;  crosses  the  prairies,  133 ; 
reaches  the  Rockies,  133  ;  General 
Dodge  discovers  Sherman  Pass,  133, 

135  ;  timnelling  in  the  moimtains, 
135 ;  high  cost  of  materials,  135  ; 
Indian  hostilities,  135.  Central 
Pacific  starts  from  Sacramento, 
136 ;     climbs    the    Sierra    Nevada, 

136  ;  passes  through  the  snow  belt, 
136;    nigh  elevations  on  the  line, 

137  ;  descends  into  Great  Desert, 
and  approaches  Salt  Lake  City,  137  ; 
anxiety  of  Mormons  lest  railway 
should  pass  them  by,  138 ;  their 
disappointment,  138  ;  the  grades  of 
the  two  railroads  meet  and  over- 
lap 200  miles,  138;  last  spike 
driven  at  Promontory,  May  10, 
1869,  139  ;  cost  and  quality  of  the 
line,  139  ;  criticisms  of  the  Central 
Pacific  track,  140 ;  engineering 
handicaps,  141  ;  improvement  of 
the  Union  Pacific  track,  141  ;  the 
Omaha  cut-off,  142 ;  the  Lucin 
cut-off  across  Salt  Lake,  143  ;  driv- 
ing piles  in  lake  bottom  for  trestles, 
144 ;  serious  difficulties  encoun- 
tered, 145 ;  recent  history  of  the 
track,     145 ;    what    the    Overland 


Route   has   done,   145 ;   conclusion, 
147. 

Construction,  railway,  I.,  346. 

Continuous  beam  in  bridge  construction, 
I.,  103. 

Conversion  of  the  Gaujce  of  the 
Great  Western  Railway,  The, 
L,  108-118. 

The  broad  gauge,  109  ;  its  dis- 
advantages, 109 ;  growth  of  the 
narrow  gauge  throughout  the  coun- 
try, 109  ;  need  for  narrowing  the 
broad  gauge,  109  ;  the  work  to  b« 
done,  110;  clearing  the  line,  110; 
the  last  day  of  using  the  broad 
gauge.  111  ;  signal  to  commence 
work.  111;  last  "  up  "  broad  gauge 
train.  111  ;  instructions  to  station- 
masters,  112  ;  "  death  warrants  " 
issued,  112;  labour  organization, 
113",  114;  lodging  the  men,  113; 
altering  the  gauge,  114  ;  methodical 
work,  114 ;  diflficulties  on  curves, 
115;  cutting  rails,  115  ;  testing  the 
line,  116;  gauge  converted  in  thirty 
hours,  116  ;  cost  of  alteration,  117  ; 
narrow  gauge  imalterablo,  118. 

Conveyor  at  Victoria  Falls  Bridge,  I.,  96. 

Cooling  pistons  by  circulation  of  water, 
I.,  225. 

"  Comishman,"  the,  I.,  111. 

Corrosion  of  steel,  prevented  by  concrete 
casing,  II.,  13. 

Corruption  of  Russian  railway  officials, 
in.,  84,  88. 

Cost  of  railway  construction,  Hedjaz 
Railway,  I.,  348. 

Cotton  crop  in  Egypt,  II.,  390,  407. 

Cradles  for  ship  laimching,  II.,  76. 

"  Cradling  "  of  bridge  cables,  I.,  299. 

CRANES : 

Goliath,  HL,  69,  79,  271  ;  "  Jubi- 
lee," at  Forth  Bridge,  L,  334  ;  ladle, 
in  steel  works.  III.,  267  ;  locomotive, 
n.,  223  ;  shipbuilding  vard,  II.,  66, 
67  ;  Titan,  III.,  69  ;  travelling,  at 
Victoria  Bridge,  I.,  209. 

Cruisers,  armoured,  I.,  391  ;  protected, 
391. 

Crystal  Palace,  first  iron  frame  cage 
building,  IL,  3. 

Culebra  cutting  on  Panama  Canal,  II., 
135,  145,  148. 

Curtain  walls,  II.,  2. 

Curves — Chicago  freight  subways,  I.,  367 ; 
Fell  railway.  III.,  304. 

Cut-and-cover  work — aqueduct,  III.,  179 ; 
New  York  subwav,  11.,  345-347 ; 
Rotherhithe  Tunnel,  I.,  52. 


Dalbymple  Hay,  Harley  H.,  on  "The 
Tube  Railways  of  London,"  I.,  227- 
240,  300-311." 

DAMS  {see  "Great  British  Dams  and 
Aqueducts,"  "Nile  Dams  and  As- 
souan Reservoir,"  "  Water  Supply 
of  New  York  City"): 

Assouan,  11.,  391-398  ;  Bhatghur, 
m.,  245;  Blaokwater,  IIL,  274; 
Caban  Coch,  IIL,  189;  Colorado 
River,  see  "  Colorado  River  Closure;" 
Craig  Goch,  III.,  190  ;  Cross  River, 
in.,  102 ;  Derwent,  HI.,  191  ; 
Ganges  Canal,  Ed.,  241  ;  Gatira, 
IL,  140 ;  Howden,  m.,  191  ;  Loch 
Katrine,  m.,  179  ;  Loch  Vonnachar, 
IIL,  179  ;  Marikanave,  in..  246  ; 
Needle,  III.,  176 ;  New  Oroton, 
IIL,    101;     Nidd,   IIL,    192;     Old 


Croton.  III..  98;  Olive  Bridge, 
in.,  105-107;  Pen-y-gareg,  m.. 
190  ;  Periyar,  m.,  24.'"> ;  Rooim-v-  !t, 
IL,  99  ;  Shoshone,  IL,  101  ;  Thirl- 
more,  IIL,  183  ;  Vymwy,  IIL,  180  ; 
Yuma,  n..  101. 

Deacon,  G.  F.,  engineer  of  Vymwy- 
Liverpool  aqueduct,  IIL,  180. 

"  Dead  Horso  Trail,"  L,  25. 

Delta  barrage,  IL,  389, 390. 

Deltas,  formation  of,  in.,  242 ;  Godaveri. 
III..  244. 

Desert,  Great,  of  United  States,  IL,  90. 

Desl^nin^  a  Ship,  L,  3'yj-358. 

Fivtors  of  design,  350  ;  choice  of 
dimensions,  351  ;  form  of  the  ship, 
352  ;  distribution  of  weight  in  vari- 
ous kinds  of  vessels,  3.02  ;  "  gross 
and  net  tonnage  "  explained,  352  ; 
metacentric  height  and  its  effect  on 
stability,  353 ;  stronf^th  increased 
by  employment  of  stot?!,  353  ;  longi- 
tudinal strength,  353,  354  ;  varifties 
of  structural  desien,  354  ;  gcmriil 
arrangement  of  steamship,  'S-'i'f  ; 
water  ballast,  double  bottoms,  355, 

356  ;     cabin    accommodation,    3.')fi  ; 
speed,    resistance,    and    propti! 
356 ;      experimental     tanks, 
"propulsive      coefficient,"      ".;... 
cated     horse-power,"    "  slip,"    356, 

357  ;  rolling  in  a  seaway,  357  ;  the 
Schliok  gyroscopic  principle  of  pre- 
venting rolling,  358. 

Destroyers,  I.,  395 ;  trials,  395,  396 ; 
ocean-going,  419  ;  development  of, 
421  ;  nigh  speed,  421,  422  ;  on  a 
destroyer,  424. 

Development  of  the  Ship,  The,  L, 
312-320. 

Birth  of  the  shipbuilding  industry, 
312  ;  Egyptian  galleys,  312  ;  Alfred 
the  Great  the  founder  of  the  British 
navy,  313 ;  Viking  ships,  313  ; 
Columbus's  flagship,  the 5an/a  Maria, 
313,  314  ;  application  of  steam  to 
marine  propulsion,  314  ;  the  Char- 
lotte Dundas,  Clervwnt,  and  Comet, 
314  ;  early  Atlantic  steamships,  the 
Savannah,  315  ;  decline  of  the  sail- 
ing ship,  315 ;  wood,  composite, 
and  iron  ships,  316 ;  the  Great 
Britain  screw  steamship,  316;  the 
Great  Eastern,  316,  317,  318  ;  de- 
velopments during  the  ptist  fifty 
years,  318,  319  ;  increase  in  size 
and  speed,  319 ;  will  steamships 
continue  to  grow  in  size  and  speed  ? 
319,  320. 

Development  of  the  Racing  Motor 
Car,  The,  m.,  321-334. 

Racing  cars  very  wonderful  ma- 
chines, 321  ;  what  is  required  of 
them,  321  ;  the  first  important 
race,  Paris  to  Rouen,  322  ;  twenty- 
one  cars  take  part,  323  ;  a  humorous 
incident,  323  ;  Paris- Bordeaux  race 
of  1895,  324  ;  the  winning  car,  324  ; 
Paris-Marseilles-Paris  race  of  1896, 
324 ;  Paris-Amsterdam-Paris  race 
of  1898,  325  ;   tour  de  France,  1899, 

325  ;  an  average  speed  of  27  mi  les 
an  hour,  .325  ;  first  Gordon- Bennett 
race,  1900,  a  partial  fiasco,  325 : 
weight  limitations  in  the  1902  Gor- 
don-Bennett race,  Paris  to  Vienna. 

326  ;  Paris-Madrid  race,  1903,  326  ; 
tyres  and  speed,  327 ;  racing  in  Ire- 
land for  Gordon- Bennett  cup,  1903, 
327;  Thery  wins  rXH  Gordon- 
Bonnett  race  (■»•  ••■'■'"■^«,  328;  prac- 


[389] 


tical  results  of  racing,  328;  the  last 
Gordon- Bennett  race,  1905,  Thery 
wins  again,  329 ;  detachable  rims 
used  by  competitors  for  Grand  Prix 
in  1906,  330;  fuel  limitations  for 
1907  Grand  Prix,  330 ;  cylinder  bore 
limited  for  1908  Grand  Prix,  331  ; 
restrictions  abandoned  for  1910, 
332 ;  track  racing,  332 ;  record- 
breaking  "  freak  "  cars,  333  ;  table 
of  speed  records,  334. 

"  Devil's  Belly,"  the,  on  Hedjaz  rail- 
way, I.,  344. 

Dhu  Heartach  lighthouse,  I.,  374. 

Distillation  of  petroleum,  II.,  336. 

Distribution  of  electrical  energy  in 
London,  three- wire  system.  III., 
226. 

Diver  employed  for  underpinning  work 
at  Winchester  Cathedral,  III.,  313, 
314  ;   in  Severn  Tunnel,  I.,  83,  84. 

Diver's  dress.  III.,  314. 

Dixon,  John,  engineer  who  transported 
Cleopatra's  Needle  from  Egypt  to 
England,  IT.,  24. 

DOCKS: 
Dry,  II.,  179. 

Floating,  see  "  Docks,  Floating  ;  " 
Govan,    II.,    179 ;     Liverpool,    II., 
176;   Manchester,  L,  167;   Tilbury, 
IL,  177  ;   timber,  H.,  185. 
Docks,  IL,  173-187. 

Definitions  of  dry  docks,  wet 
docks,  etc.,  173,  174 ;  sites  for 
docks,  various  considerations,  174 ; 
arrangement  of  a  port,  175  ;  jetties, 
175  ;  need  for  suitable  approaches, 
176 ;  breakwaters,  training  walls, 
etc.,  177.  Wet  docks,  177  ;  half- 
tide  basins,  their  use,  177  ;  lock 
entrances,  177  ;  locks,  178 ;  how 
constructed,  178,  184,  185.  Dey 
DOCKING  a  ship,  178 ;  large  dry 
docks,  179 ;  construction  of 
docks,  181,  182 ;  foundations  for 
dock  walls,  183  ;  monolith  founda- 
tions, 183  ;  rear  support  of  a  wall, 
184.  Dock  gates,  185 ;  straight, 
curved,  and  segmental  gates,  185  ; 
caisson  types  of  gate,  186,  187. 
Docks,  Floating,  II. ,  409-417. 

Origin  of  the  floating  dock,  409  ; 
the  first  floating  dock,  409  ;  great 
increase  in  popularity  of  the  floating 
dock,  410 ;  low  cost  and  rapid  con- 
struction, 410  ;  method  of  working 
a  floating  dock,  411  ;  the  "  box  " 
dock,  411  ;  depositing  docks,  412  ; 
off-shore  docks,  412  ;  sectional  pon- 
toon and  Havana  types,  41 3 ;  bolted 
sectional  type,  416  ;  Bermuda  dock, 
413,  415,  416;  Philippine  dock, 
416;  remarkable  voyages  of  floating 
docks,  417. 

Docks  determine  size  of  ships,  I.,  320. 

Dog-shores,  II. ,  77. 

Dolmens,  I.,  7. 

Double  bottom  of  ships,  n.,  70. 

Douglass,  N.,  I.,  378,  379. 

Douglass,  Sir  J.  N.,  L,  375,  380. 

Douglass,  W.  T.,  L,  379,  380,  384. 

Douie,  Andrew,  on  "  The  Building  of  the 
Train  Ferry  Baikal"  I.,  65-78. 

Dragonflij,  the,  II. ,  43. 

Drags  for  ship  launching,  II. ,  77. 

Drainage — of  London,  see  "  Wonderful 
Drainage  System  of  London  ;  "  of 
swamps  by  ploughing,  HI.,  292 ; 
of  tube  railway  tunnels,  I.,  309. 

Dreadnoiight,  H.M.S.,  I.,  319  ;  armour, 
390  ;   cost,  390  ;   guns,  388. 


Dredgers    or    dredges — hydraulic,    III., 

169,   173  ;    rock  breaking,  L,  251  ; 

Suez  Canal,  L,  246,  251. 
"  Drift  "  of  a  kite,  m.,  5. 
Drilling  artesian  wells.  III.,  337;  oil  wells, 

II. ,  327. 
Drills— Brandt    hydraulic.     III.,     153 ; 

Ferroux     air,    152 ;     Siemens     and 

Halske    electric,    307 ;     Sommeiller 

air,  152;    well-sinking — calyx,  338; 

chisel,   338 ;    diamond,  338 ;    shot, 

339. 
Driving     last    spike — Canadian    Pacific 

Railwav,    I.,    282 ;     Union    Pacific 

Railway,  III.,  139. 
Drought  in  Australia,  IL,  312. 
Duluth  transporter  bridge,  I.,  292. 
Dumont,  Santos,  HI.,  1  ;    wins  Deutsch 

Prize,  61. 
"  Dumpling  "  of  earth  in  cut-and-cover 

tunnelling,  L,  52. 
Dupuy  de  Lome's  dirigible  balloon,  HI., 

51. 
Dynamometer  Car,  a  Railway,  IL, 

253-255. 


Early  Atlantic  Cables,  IL,  277-294, 
355-374. 

The  pioneer  line  :  the  Magnetic 
Telegraph  Company  champions  a 
scheme  for  laying  an  Atlantic  cable, 
277  ;  Gisborne's  concession,  277  ; 
Gisbome  sells  to  a  syndicate,  278  ; 
cable  laid  from  Newfoundland  to 
Cape  Breton,  278 ;  exploring  the 
bed  of  the  Atlantic,  278  ;  the  Brooke 
sounder,  278  ;  a  submarine  plateau 
discovered,  279  ;  Field  approaches 
Magnetic  Telegraph  Company,  279  ; 
agreement  signed  to  form  a  com- 
pany for  laying  an  Atlantic  cable, 
280  ;  prejudice  and  criticism  aroused 
by  the  scheme,  280  ;  Government 
recognition,  281  ;  Atlantic  Tele- 
graph Company  registered,  281  ; 
most  of  the  capital  raised  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  282  ;  fallacies  and 
curious  suggestions  by  the  inexpert, 
282 ;  manufacture  of  the  cable, 
283,  285 ;  ships  and  paying-out  ma- 
chinery, 285  ;  preparations  for  the 
start,  286 ;  the  first  start,  287 ; 
anxious  work,  288  ;  the  cable  snaps, 
289  ;  preparations  for  another  at- 
tempt, 289  ;  necessary  funds  raised, 
291  ;  new  paying  -  out  gear  con- 
structed, 291  ;  principle  of  Bright's 
paying- out  gear  explained,  291, 
292 ;  Thomson's  reflecting  galva- 
nometer, 293,  294 ;  rehearsal  for 
second  attempt,  294.  Second  ex- 
pedition :  a  start  made,  355 ; 
tempestuous  weather,  355,  356 ; 
repeated  troubles,  356  ;  ships  return 
home,  357  ;  projectors  determine  to 
persevere,  357  ;  another  start  made, 
357  ;  exciting  incidents,  357  ;  great 
anxiety  aboard  ship,  358 ;  both 
ships  reach  land,  360  ;  first  trans- 
atlantic message  sent,  360  ;  general 
congratulations,  361  ;  American  en- 
thusiasm, 362  ;  curious  coincidences, 
362 ;  working  the  line,  a  famous 
message  sent,  363  ;  the  cable  fails, 
great  public  disappointment,  363, 
364  ;  the  inquest,  cause  of  failure 
determined,  364.  The  1865  cable  : 
cost  of  cable  subscribed  in  Great 
Britain,  365  ;  the  new  cable,  365, 
366 ;      Great    Eastern    secured     for 


laying  it,  366 ;  laying  operations 
started,  366 ;  faults  discovered, 
368 ;  the  expedition  fails,  368. 
The  1866  cable  :  Anglo-American 
Telegraph  Company  formed,  368 ; 
new  main  cable  similar  to  its  pre- 
decessor, new  shore-end  type,  369  ; 
improvements  in  paying-out  and 
picking-up  machinery,  369 ;  Great 
Eastern  sets  out  again,  369  ;  a  foul 
in  the  cable  tank,  370  ;  the  cable 
landed,  370.  The  1865  cable  (con- 
tinued) :  repeated  failures  in  at- 
tempts to  bring  it  to  surface,  371  ; 
brought  up  at  last,  372  ;  cable  com- 
pleted, 372  ;   conclusion,  372. 

Earthquakes,  their  effect  on  steel  build- 
ings, n.,  10,  11. 

Egyptian  ships,  I.,  312. 

Eiffel,  M.,  designer  of  frame  for  statue  of 
Liberty,  III.,  253. 

Ejector,  mud,  I.,  327. 

El  Ula,  on  Hedjaz  Railway,  I.,  345. 

Electric  furnaces  for  separation  of 
aluminium.  III.,  273. 

Electric  Power- Stations  of  London, 
The,  m.,  226-231. 

Some  figures,  226  ;  uses  of  elec- 
tricity, 226 ;  systems  of  distribu- 
tion, 226 ;  the  three-wire  system 
explained,  227  ;  alternating  current, 
227  ;  transformers,  227 ;  future 
supply,  229  ;  alternating  and  direct 
current  both  needed,  229.  Lot's 
Road  power-station,  230,  231: 
coaling  facilities,  230 ;  automatic 
stokers,  230 ;  boilers,  generators,  and 
steam  turbines,  231. 

Embankments — Manchester  Ship  Canal, 
L,  159-162;  Omaha  cut-off.  III., 
142  ;  New  Chingford  reservoir,  III., 
199. 

Engineering,  ancient,  I.,  5-20. 

Engines,  aeronautical,  IIL,  29-37,  see 
"  Aeronautical  Engines  ;  "  pump- 
ing, see  "  Pumping  Engines." 

Electric  towage  on  canals.  III.,  167. 

Elevator,  high  speed,  II. ,  20. 

Equipment  of  a  Modern  Shipyard, 
The,  II. ,  65-80. 

Economy  of  vital  importance, 
65  ;  building  berths,  65  ;  berths  at 
Newport  News,  65  ;  covered  berths, 
66 ;  cableways  for  handluig  ma- 
terials, 66 ;  gantries  at  Belfast, 
66,  67  ;  shipyard  machinery,  67. 
Building  a  ship  :  the  working 
model,  68  ;  "  laying  off  "  in  the 
mould  loft,  68  ;  the  frames  scrived, 
70 ;  laying  the  keel,  70 ;  keel 
blocks  arranged  on  gradient,  70 ; 
keel,  keelson,  and  double  bottom, 
70  ;  framing  a  vessel,  71  ;  beams 
and  bulkheads,  72  ;  stem  bar  and 
stern  frame,  73  ;  plating  and  rivet- 
ing, 74  ;  caulking  and  painting,  75. 
Launching  a  ship  :  an  anxious  pro- 
cess, 75;  the  ground- ways,  75 ;  sliding 
ways  and  cradles,  76;  transferring 
ship's  weight  to  the  ways,  76  ;  the 
"  dog-shores,"  77  ;  the  drags,  77  ; 
lavmching  the  Mauretania,  78.  Com- 
pletion :  shipping  the  machinery, 
79;  fitting-out,  79, 80 ;  the  trial  trip, 
80. 

Ermack,  lengthening  of  the.  III.,  122. 

Escape  from  drowning,  wonderful,  II., 
120. 

Esneh  barrage,  II. ,  404,  405. 

Everglades  of  Florida,  the,  L,  129,  130. 

Exactitude  in  calculation  of  bridge  mem- 


[  390] 


bers,  etc.,  III.,  285  ;  in  manufac- 
ture of  tubes  for  Victoria  Bridge,  I., 
210;  in  tunnelling,  II.,  IIG  ;  III., 
149  (Mont  Ck^nis  Tunnel);  III.,  155, 
156  (Simplon  Tunnel). 

T3xcavating  niachiuory  for  Chicago  Drain- 
ago  Canal,  III.,  173 ;  New  Erie 
Canal,  III.,  169 ;  Panama  Canal, 
II.,  146,  see  also  "  Dredgers." 

Expansion  of  metals,  provision  for  in 
Forth  Bridge,  I.,  330,  335. 

Experimental  tanks  for  testing  models 
of  ships,  L,  356. 


Fabman  biplane.  III.,  23. 

Fell  railway,  III.,  301-306. 

Ferry  service  in  New  York,  U.,  259. 

Field,  Cyrus  West,  II.,  278  ;  comes  to 
England,  279 ;  makes  agreement 
with  Bright  and  Brett  to  found 
Atlantic  Telegraph  Company,  280  ; 
general  manager  of  Atlantic  Tele- 
graph Company,  282 ;  congratu- 
lated on  success  of  first  Atlantic 
cable  by  Legislative  Council  of 
Newfoundland,  361  ;  tries  to  raise 
funds  in  America  for  1865  cable, 
365 ;  sails  on  1866  expedition, 
368. 

Filter  beds,  III.,  204. 

Fires  in  oil-field.s  II.,  333,  334. 

Fishguard  Harbour,  The  Construc- 
tion of,  I.,  172-180. 

Fishguard  Bay,  172 ;  its  suit- 
ability for  a  harbour,  173  ;  Brunei's 
scheme,  173  ;  a  modern  scheme  by 
Great  Western  Railway  Company, 
175 ;  work  to  be  done,  175 ;  ex- 
cavating the  rock,  175  ;  great  blasts, 
176 ;  the  breakwater,  176 ;  the 
quay  wall,  176  ;  accommodation  for 
cattle,  178  ;  quay  equipment,  178  ; 
weather-recording  instruments,  179  ; 
Fishguard  liners,  179,  180. 

Flagler,  H.  M.,  promoter  of  the  Florida 
East  Coast  Extension  Railway,  I., 
129,  139. 

Flat  iron  building.  New  York,  11.,  1,  14. 

Fleming,  Sir  Sandford,  reports  on  and 
surveys  route  of  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  I.,  258,  259. 

Floating  first  tube  of  the  Britannia 
Bridge,  I.,  150 ;  spans  of  Saltash 
Bridge,  37,  38. 

Florida  East  Coast  Railway  Exten- 
sion, The,  I.,  129-142. 

A  remarkable  scheme,  129 ;  Mr. 
Henry  M.  Flagler,  129;  difficult 
surveying,  129,  130 ;  construction 
work — dredging  in  the  swamps,  130 ; 
grading  across  Key  Largo,  131  ; 
labour  difficulties,  131  ;  workmen's 
floating  hotels,  132  ;  railway  built 
largely  from  boats,  132  ;  table  of 
distances,  132,  133  ;  the  viaducts, 
133 ;  enormous  quantities  of  material 
needed,  133  ;  how  the  viaducts  were 
built,  134 ;  the  works  swept  by 
storms,  thrilling  adventures,  135, 
136  ;  Knight's  Key  terminus,  137  ; 
dredging  in  the  islands,  137  ;  via- 
duct track  30  feet  above  water,  138  ; 
the  engineers  in  command,  139  ; 
progress  of  the  work,  139  ;  lonely 
dwellers  on  the  Keys,  140  ;  trans- 
forming Key  West,  140  ;  cost  per 
mile,  140  ;  a  wonderful  journey,  141. 

Forced  draught  in  ship's  stokehold,  II., 
33. 


Forth  Bridge,  The  Story  of  the,  1 , 

321-337. 

The  Firth  of  Forth,  321  ;  how 
people  crossed  it  prior  to  the  erection 
of  the  Forth  Bridge,  321  ;  barren 
schemes  for  tunnelling  and  bridging 
the  firth,  322  ;  Sir  Thomas  Bouch's 
designs    for    a    suspension    bridge, 

322  ;  bridge  begun,  but  abandoned, 
322 ;  the  final  scheme  of  .Messrs. 
Fowler  and  Baker,  a  cantilever 
bridge,  322 ;  meaning  of  the  word 
"  cantilever,"  322  ;  dimensions  of 
the  Forth  Bridge,  322  ;  the  canti- 
levers, 323  ;    the  suspended  girders, 

323  ;  main  spans  and  approaches, 
323  ;  why  the  present  site  was 
chosen,  323  ;  the  three  towers  sup- 
porting the  cantilevers,  323  ;  work 
commenced  late  in  1882,  324  ;  care- 
ful measurements  to  fix  exact  sites 
of  piers,  324 ;  workshops,  yards, 
etc.,  prepared  on  Queensferry  shore, 

325  ;     the   Queensferry  jetty,   325  ; 

TWELVE     CIRCULAR     PIERS     for     the 

towers,  325  ;  use  of  open  and  pneu- 
matic caissons  for  sinking  the  pier 
foundations,  325 ;  soundings  for 
Inchgarvie  foundations,  325  ;  sink- 
ing Inchgarvie  south  caissons,  325, 

326  ;  use  of  compressed  air,  326 ; 
the  Queensferry  caissons,  326  ;  float- 
ing them  into  position,  327  ;  silt 
removed  from  caisson  by  mud 
ejector,  .327  ;  hydraulic  spade  for 
cutting  the  clay,  327  ;  accident  to 
a  caisson,  327  ;  how  the  damage 
was  rectified,  327  ;  air-chambers 
filled  with  concrete,  328  ;  the  granite 
piers,  328 ;  the  lower  bed-plates, 
329  ;  facts  and  figures  about  the 
foundations  and  piers,  329.  The 
SUPERSTRUCTURE  :  "  skewbacks," 
329  ;  provision  for  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  metal  members, 
330 ;  key-plates  and  upper  bed- 
plates, 330 ;  their  purpose  and 
action  explained,  330 ;  preparing 
the  giant  tubes  for  towers  and  canti- 
levers, 331  ;  erection  of  the  steel 
work  begun,  331  ;  movable  plat- 
forms for  tower  construction,  331  ; 
how  the  platforms  were  raised,  332  ; 
correcting  the  inclination  of  the 
columns,  332 ;  towers  completed, 
332 ;  workshops  360  feet  above 
water,  334  ;  "  Jubilee  "  cranes  for 
building  out  cantilevers,  334  ;  canti- 
levers completed,  334 ;  details  of 
the  extremities,  335  ;  clever  device 
for  permitting  movement  of  canti- 
levers, 335 ;  building  the  central 
girders,  335  ;  joining  up  the  girder 
booms,  335,  336  ;  a  delicate  task, 
336  ;  a  dramatic  episode,  336  ;  an 
ingenious  self-adjusting  rail  joint, 
336 ;  cost  of  the  bridge,  336 ;  a 
splendid  success,  337. 

Foundations  of  Holy  Trinity  Church, 
Hull,  IIL,  315;  Royal  Albert 
Bridge,  Saltash,  I.,  35 ;  St.  Mary 
Woolnoth,  III.,  318 ;  steel  frame 
buildings,  IT.,  5  ;  Winchester  Cathe- 
dral, m.,  313,  315  ;    see  "  Bridcres." 

Fowler,  Sir  John,  designer  of  Forth 
Bridge,  I.,  322. 

Fox,  C.  Beresford.  I.,  96. 

Fox,  Francis,  m.,  313. 

"  Freezing  out,"  I.,  74. 

"  Front  end  "  of  tunnelling  shield,  I., 
240. 

[391] 


li..u.ii-,  W.,  oxj>orimont«  \>iwi  -ii.p 
models,  I.,  'A')(^. 

Fuel,  liquid,  hikI  its  U8M,  II.,  344);  4«;e 
"  Oil  Fuel." 

Fullard,  T.  Flot<'her,  on  "  Rumtan  Rail- 
ways in  Central  Asia,"  IT.,  375  ;  on 
"ThoTrans-Silxsrian  Railway,"  HI., 
81. 

Fulton,  H.  H.,  L,  153. 

Fulton,  Robert,  builder  of  the  CUrmont, 
L,  314. 

Fumaco — blast.  111..  261;  chargon<, 
mechanical,  267,  270  ;  electric,  273  ; 
open-hearth,  for  8t«ol  making,  265  ; 
tilting  opcn-hf.-irth,  265. 


a 

Gaibns,  J.  F.,  on  "  LocomotiveB  of 
To-day,"  II.,  193-214  ;  on  "  Elec- 
tric Ijocomotives,"  II.,  217-222. 

Gales,  violent,  in  Cornwall,  11.,  441. 

Gares  in  Suez  Canal,  I.,  251. 

Qas  Engine,  The  Development  of 
the,  L,  215-226. 

Tho  steam  engine,  215 ;  the 
energy  of  heat,  215;  tho  internal 
combustion  engine,  216 ;  early 
gas  engines,  216;  Beau  de  Rochas's 
discovery  of  the  value  of  compres- 
sion, 216;  need  for  cooling  the 
cylinder,  217  ;  Dugald  Clerk  intro- 
duces double-acting  engine,  217 ; 
the  gaa  "producer,"  217;  chemi- 
cal action  in  the  "  producer,"  217  ; 
cheap  gas  causes  boom  in  gas 
engines,  218 ;  Thwaite's  discovery 
regarding  blast  furnace  gas,  219 ; 
uses  it  successfully  in  a  gas  engine, 
219 ;  furnace  gas  cleaners  and 
scrubbers,  220,  221  ;  Niirnberg 
four-stroke  double-acting  engines, 
221  ;  two-stroke  Korting  engines, 
221,  223;  the  Oechelhauser  engine, 
223,  224  ;  huge  American  gas  engine 
installations,  224  ;  wealth  in  blast 
furnace  gas,  225 ;  an  interesting 
cycle  of  operations,  blast  furnace 
and  gas  engine,  225 ;  thermal 
efficiency  of  various  types  of  engine, 
226. 

Gas  producers,  I.,  217  ;  chemical  action 
in,  217  ;  blast  furnace  as  gas  pro- 
ducer, 219. 

Gas,  natural,  in  United  States,  II.,  339  ; 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  encounterwl 
in  Thames  Tunnel,  I.,  191. 

Gatun  lake,  IL,  139.  142. 

Gauge,  railway — broad.  Great  Western 
Railway,  I.,  109  (see  "  Conversion 
of  the  Gauge  of  the  Great  Western 
Railway  ") ;  South  African  rail- 
ways, IL,  153 ;  Uganda  railway, 
n.;  54. 

General  Post  Office  Buildings,  new,  II., 
430-432. 

Gibbon,  J.  M.,  on  "The  Construction  of 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,"  I., 
257. 

Giffard's  dirigible  balloon.  III..  1. 
49. 

Girders — Saltash  Bridge  arched,  I.,  36. 
39  ;  braced,  105  ;  continuous,  103  : 
parabolic,  104;  plate,  104;  Forth 
Bridge  suspended,  I.,  323,  335,  336  ; 
imder  St.  Mary  Woolnoth,  m., 
318,  319,  320;  see  "  Bridges  "  (pas- 
sim). 

Gisborne,  P.  N.,  concessionaire  for  tele- 
graph in  Newfoundland,  11.,  276 ;. 
sells  rights  to  a  W.  Field.  277. 


Oladiator,  the  salving  of  the,  I.,  41-48; 
see  "Salving  of  the  Gladiator." 

Globe  and  Phoenix  mine,  II.,  153. 

Gold  discoveries  in  the  Klondike,  I.,  21. 

Gorgas,  Colonel,  sanitary  officer  at  Pan- 
ama Canal  works,  checks  malaria, 
II.,  137. 

Governing  Pelton  water-wheels,  m., 
277. 

Gradients  on — Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
in  Rockies,  I.,  277  ;  Central  Pacific 
Railway,  III.,  140  ;  Famatina  cable- 
way,  I.,  125 ;  Fell  railway.  III., 
303 ;  Hedjaz  Railway,  I.,  345 ; 
Jungfrau  railway.  III.,  307  ;  Mont 
Cenis  Tunnel,  III.,  151 ;  St.  Gothard, 
III.,  152;  Simplon  Tunnel,  III., 
155  ;  tube  railways,  I.,  311 ;  Uganda 
railway,  EC.,  68  ;  Wetterhom  rail- 
way, II.,  191  ;  White  Pass  railway, 
I.,  32. 

Grapnels  for  picking  up  submarine 
cables,  11.,  371. 

Great  Britain,  the,  I.,  316. 

Great  British  Dams  and  Aqueducts, 
III.,  177-192. 

Roman  aqueducts  followed  hy- 
draulic gradient,  177 ;  modem 
aqueducts  include  pipe  syphons, 
179 ;  three  methods  of  construc- 
tion now  used — tunnelling,  cut-and- 
cover,  and  syphons,  179  ;  balancing 
reservoirs  on  pipe  lines,  179.  Glas- 
gow aqueducts,  179,180.  Vyrnwy- 
LiVERPOOii  SCHBMB,  180 ;  Vymwy 
dam,  180  ;  inlet  water  tower,  181  ; 
the  aqueduct,  181  ;    Norton  Tower, 

181  ;  tunnels  on  the  aqueduct  route, 

182  ;  tunnelling  under  the  Mersey, 
a  difficult  task,  182 ;  ingenious 
temporary  connection  across  the 
Mersey,  183 ;  Lake  Vymwy,  183. 
Thirlmeke-Manchesteb     scheme, 

183  ;  the  aqueduct,  183  ;  cast-iron 
pipes,  their  size,  manufacture,  and 
jointing,  185,  186  ;  automatic  check 
valves,  187,  188.  Elan-Birmino- 
HAM  scheme,  189  ;  the  Elan  and 
Claerwen  water-sheds,  189  ;  Caban 
Coch  dam,  189 ;  submerged  dam, 
190 ;  Pen-y-gareg  and  Craig  Goch 
dams,  190 ;  submerged  buildings, 
190,  191  ;  the  aqueduct,  191. 
Other  schemes  :  Derwent  valley 
waterworks  and  Derwent  dam,  191  ; 
Bradford's  supply  from  the  river 
Nidd,  192. 

"  Great  Divide,"  the,  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  I.,  276. 

Cfreat  Eastern,  the,  designed  by  I.  K. 
Brunei,  I.,  316 ;  compared  with 
Lusitania,  317,  318  ;  used  for  lay- 
ing 1865  and  1866  Atlantic  cables, 
II.,  366-372. 

Greathead,  J.  H.,  inventor  of  the  circular 
tunnelling  shield,  I.,  228. 

Great  Irrigation  Works  of  India, 
The,  ni.,  232-249. 

Extent  of  Government  irrigation 
works,  232  ;  their  social  effect,  232, 
233  ;  rainfall  of  India,  233  ;  systems 
and  location  of  irrigation  works, 
233,  234  ;  statistics  of  areas,  234. 
Chenab   Canal,   235 ;    dimensions, 

235  ;  what  the  canal  has  done,  235  ; 
laying  out  the  canal  system,  236  ; 
subdividing  the  tract  irrigated,  236  ; 
escape  reservoirs  for  surplus  water, 

236  ;  the  Chenab  weir,  238  ;  weir 
shutters,  their  action,  238  ;  cost  of 
the  scheme,  239.     Bari  Doab  Canal, 


240 ;  irrigates  one  million  acres, 
240  ;    the  head-works  badly  placed, 

241.  Ganges  Canal,  241  ;  head- 
works,  241  ;  building  temporary 
dams  to  divert  the  water  from  river 
into  canal,  241  ;    Solani  aqueduct, 

242.  GoDAVERi  Delta  Canal 
system,  242  ;  how  deltas  are  formed, 
242  ;  the  canals,  244.  Tanks  and 
Reservoirs  :  Periyar  tunnel,  dam, 
and  reservoir,  244,  245  ;  Lake  Whit- 
ing and  the  Bhatghur  dam,  245  ; 
Lake  Fife,  245  ;  Marikanave  reser- 
voir and  dam,  a  colossal  scheme, 
246.  Conclusion  :  the  irrigation 
engineer's  life,  246  ;  contrasts  pro- 
duced by  irrigation,  246,  247 ; 
plenty  and  famine,  2J48  ;  the  dis- 
tribution of  food  in  famine  areas, 
248  ;   value  of  irrigated  crops,  249. 

Great  Tunnels  through  the  Alps, 
The,  in.,  148-162. 

The  Alps  as  barriers,  148  ;  Sem- 
mering  Pass  railway  constructed, 
149.  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  :  finan- 
cial agreement  between  French  and 
Italian  Governments,  149 ;  the 
tunnel  to  be  of  unprecedented 
length,  149  ;  tunnel  completed  in 
thirteen  years  of  work,  149  ;  details 
of  the  tunnel — dimensions,  gradients, 
cost,  etc.,  151.  St.  Gothard  Tun- 
nel :  a  Swiss  proposition  supported 
by  Italy  and  Germany,  151  ;  respec- 
tive contributions,  151  ;  details  of 
tunnel,  151  ;  gradients,  1.52  ;  work 
begun  in  September  1872,  152 ; 
improved  drills  and  explosives,  but 
bad  ventilation,  152  ;  tunnel  com- 
pleted. New  Year's  Day,  1882,  152. 
Arlberg  Tunnel  :  length,  gra- 
dients, etc.,  152 ;  work  begun, 
November  1880,  completed  Sep- 
tember 1884,  153  ;  system  of  head- 
ings used,  153  ;  quick  progress  made 
owing  to  employment  of  Brandt 
rock  drill,  153  ;  description  of 
Brandt  drill,  153 ;  good  ventila- 
tion of  the  workings,  154.  Seniplon 
Tunnel  :  the  Simplon  Pass  and 
Napoleon's  road,  154 ;  projects  for 
a  tunnel,  154 ;  convention  signed 
between  construction  company  and 
Swiss  and  Italian  Governments,  155  ; 
system  of  twin  tunnels  adopted, 
155  ;  gradients  and  terms  of  con- 
tract, 155  ;  surveying  the  pass  and 
mountains,  155  ;  accuracy  of  calcu- 
lations proved,  155, 156 ;  ventilating 
the  headings,  156  ;  series  of  opera- 
tions performed  during  every  ad- 
vance of  the  drills,  156,  167  ;  com- 
pressed air  locomotives,  157  ;  diffi- 
culties encountered — crushing  in  of 
the  timbering  in  Italian  workings, 
157  ;  steel  frames  and  cement  lining 
substituted,  158  ;  hot  springs  struck 
on  the  Swiss  side,  168  ;  work  tem- 
porarily abandoned  by  Swiss  party, 
158 ;  Italian  party  encounters  hot 
spring,  but  turns  its  flank,  159 ; 
headings  meet,  159 ;  first  train  passes 
through,  January  25,  1906,  159  ;  a 
coincidence  of  dates,  159 ;  second 
tunnel  to  be  completed  when  traffic 
demands,  160 ;  ventilation  of  the 
tunnel,  160 ;  electric  locomotives 
for  hauling  trains  through  the 
tunnel,  160 ;  cost  and  figures  of 
the  tunnel,  160.  Loetschberg  and 
Tauern  Tunnels,  162. 

[  39-2  ] 


Great  UnderpinningAchievements, 

in.,  312-320. 

What  "  underpinning  "  is,  312. 
Serious  subsidence  of  Winchester 
Cathedral,  312 ;  cause  of  subsi- 
dence, 313  ;  a  diver  employed  for 
the  underpinning  work,  313  ;  diver's 
dress,  314 ;  what  the  diver  had 
to  do,  314,  315.  Holy  Trinity 
Church,  Hull  :  ominous  cracks  in 
the  structure,  315 ;  church  tower 
supported  originally  on  a  timber 
raft,  315 ;  condition  of  raft  and 
timber  piles,  316 ;  grillage  beams 
substituted,  316  ;  old  pier  founda- 
tions removed,  316 ;  the  church 
saved,  316.  St.  Mary  Wool- 
noth  :  a  railway  station  under  a 
church,  317  ;  history  of  the  church, 
317  ;  decision  to  support  it  on 
girders,  318  ;  supporting  the  column 
bases,  318  ;  work  under  the  south 
wall,  319  ;  underpinning  the  north 
wall,  319  ;  station  booking-hall  and 
lifts,  320. 

Greeley,  Horace,  and  Greeley  colony,  11., 
86,  87. 

Gross  airship.  III.,  6. 

Grotto  of  Posilippo,  I.,  19. 

Grouting  apparatus,  I.,  61,  309  ;  used 
for  tunnel  lining,  61. 

Gunboats,  L,  393. 

Guns,    big,    I.,    404-417 ;     ammimition 
hoists,  411  ;   barbettes,  410  ;  breech- 
blocks,   408;     calibre,    404,    407 
erosion,  410  ;    firing,  410  ;    mount 
ings,  409,  412  ;   muzzle  energy,  409 
obturator,   409 ;    penetration,  403 
recoil  absorbers,  409  ;    rifling,  408 
sighting,   411  ;    weight,  411  ;    wire 
winding,  408. 

"  Gushers  "  in  oil-fields,  11.,  329-332. 

Gjrroscope — in  aeronautics.  III.,  12  ; 
Schlick,  for  steadying  ships,  I.,  358; 
for  steering  torpedoes,  I.,  436. 


H 

Had  J,  the,  or  sacred  journey  of  the 
Moslems,  I.,  339. 

Haifa,  L,  341. 

Half-tide  basins  in  docks,  II.,  177. 

Harbour  Construction,  III.,  65-79  {see 
"  Fishguard  Harbour,  the  Construc- 
tion of,"  L,  172-180). 

Types  of  breakwaters,  65  ;  two 
main  orders  of  waves,  65 ;  enor- 
mous wave-pressures,  65  ;  methods 
of  wave  stopping,  67  ;  remarkable 
instances  of  wave  force,  67,  68,  74  ; 
preliminary  investigation  of  harbour 
site,  68  ;  value  of  Portland  cement 
in  harbour  work,  68  ;  "  Titan  " 
or  "  Goliath  "  cranes,  their  respec- 
tive principles  and  advantages,  69. 
Cherbourg  digue,  70.  Plymouth 
BREAKWATER,  70  ;  begim  by  Rennie 
in  1811,  70  ;  Rennie's  method,  71  ; 
the  authorities  interfere,  slope  of 
faces  steepened,  71,  72 ;  Rennie's 
theory  proved  correct  by  a  storm, 
72  ;  original  slope  re-adopted,  72  ; 
breakwater  completed,  material  con- 
sumed, cost,  72.  Holyhead  break- 
water, 73.  Alderney  break- 
water, 73.  Dublin  harbour,  73  ; 
enormous  concrete  blocks  used,  74. 
Wick  harbour,  74 ;  great  mono- 
liths moved  by  waves,  74.  Port- 
land harbour,  74  ;  how  the  moles 
Tfere    formed,    74.     Algiers    ha.b- 


BOUR,  "  random  "  blocks  used,  74. 
Gibraltar  harbour,  island  break- 
water built  out  from  an  artificial 
island  of  concroto,  75.  Zeebrugoe 
HARBOUR,  a  novel  method  of  mov- 
ing concrete  blocks,  75,  76.  La 
GuAiRA  HARBOUR,  tlio  " sack  block" 
system,  76.  Vera  Croz  harbour, 
76,  77.  Dover  new  Admiralty 
HARBOUR,  78  ;  the  work  done,  78  ; 
wall  form  of  breakwater,  79 ;  ex- 
cavating the  clilTs,  79;  constructing 
gantries  for  Goliath  cranes,  79  ;  the 
cranes  at  work,  79  ;  groat  improve- 
ment in  speed,  79 ;  tonnage  of 
blocks  used,  79. 

Harcourt,  Sir  William,  story  about,  II., 
156. 

Harland  and  Wolff's  shipyard,  Belfast, 
II.,  66,  67. 

Harriman,  E.  H.,  I.,  367  ;  III.,  145. 

Harvey  process  of  armour-plate  making, 
I.,  399. 

Hawkshaw,  Sir  John,  engineer-in-chief 
of  the  Severn  Tunnel,  I. ,  81,  87,  89  ; 
reports  in  favour  of  the  practicability 
of  constructing  the  Suez  Canal,  I., 
243. 

"  Heclon  "  armour-piercing  shells,  I.,  390. 

Hedjaz  Railway,  The,  I,  339-349. 

Its  religious  origin,  339 ;  old 
methods  of  reaching  Mecca,  339 ; 
Jeddah  exposed  to  attack  by  sea, 
340 ;  Sultan  proposes  a  railway, 
340 ;  Moslem  enthusiasm,  340 ; 
Haifa-Doraa  branch  line,  341  ; 
Medina  main  line,  343 ;  lack  of 
water,  344  ;  negotiating  the"  Devil's 
Belly,"  344 ;  clever  engineering, 
345  ;  Tebuk  station,  345  ;  El  Ula, 
345 ;  religious  barrier  to  employ- 
ment, 345 ;  construction  work,  a 
well  built  railway,  346 ;  rolling 
stock  and  locomotives,  347 ;  the 
future  of  the  railway,  349. 

Homing,  Arthur  E.,  on  "  The  Marconi 
Towers,  Poldhu,  Cornwall,"  II., 
438. 

Hennebique  system  of  reinforced  con- 
crete, II.,  423. 

Hennepin,  Father,  discovers  Niagara 
Falls,  n.,  298. 

Hensman,  Howard,  on  "  The  African 
Transcontinental  Telegraph,"  I.,  193 ; 
on' "The  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway," 
II.,  150;  on  "The  Uganda  Rail- 
way," II.,  50. 

Herodotus's  account  of  building  the 
Pyramids,  I.,  14. 

Hertzian  waves  for  controlling  torpedoes, 
I.,  439. 

High  prices  for  land  in  Now  York,  II.,  1. 

Hill,  G.  H.,  engineer  of  the  Tlxirlraere- 
Manchester  aqueduct.  III.,  189. 

Hobson,  G.  A.,  designer  of  Zambesi 
Bridge,  I.,  92. 

Holyhead  breakwater.  III.,  73. 

Hood,  Albert  G.,  on  "  Designing  a  Ship," 
I.,  350  ;  on  "  Floating  Docks,"  II., 
409 ;  on  "  Some  Extraordinary 
Shipbuilding  Feats,"  III.,  122  ;  on 
"  The  Development  of  the  Ship," 
I.,  312  ;  on  "The  Equipment  of  a 
Shipyard,"  IT.,  65  ;  on  "  The  Pro- 
pelling Machinery  of  a  Ship,"  II., 
29  ;   on  "  War-ships,"  I.,  385. 

Hooded  shield  and  clay-pocket  system 
of  tunnelling  through  water-logged 
ground,  I.,  306,  307. 

Horses,  terrible  mortality  among,  on 
White  Pass  trail,  I.,  25. 


(1.408) 


Hot  artesian  wells  in  Australia,  II.,  317. 
Hotels  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway, 

I.,  285. 
How  a  Battleship  is  fought,  I..  442- 

452. 
How    Buildings    are    transported 

bodily,  II.,  44(5-448. 
How  London  gets  its  Water,  III., 

193-208. 

The  huge  population  supplied, 
193 ;  some  striking  figures,  194 ; 
early  history  of  the  London  water 
supply,  194  ;  London  Bridge  water 
works,  194 ;  the  New  River  scheme 
194 ;  James  I.  assists  Sir  Hugh 
Myddleton,  194  ;  New  River  com- 
pleted, 195 ;  James  Watt's  im- 
provements of  the  steam  engine, 
195 ;  increase  in  the  number  of 
water  companies,  195,  196  ;  Metro- 
politan Water  Board  formed,  196  ; 
sources  of  supply,  196  ;  productive 
wells  in  Kent,  196  ;  reservoirs,  197, 
198;  Staines  reservoirs,  198.  Ching- 
FOBD  new  reservoir,  198 ;  its 
embankments,  199;  excavations, 
199 ;  a  wonderful  steam  turbine,  200. 
Beachcroft  reservoir,  Honor  Oak, 
201,  203.  Leb  Bridge  pumping 
station,  203 ;  Cornish  pumping  en- 
gines, 203 ;  filter  beds,  their  construc- 
tion, 204 ;  a  mechanical  sand-washer, 
204  ;  other  pumping  engines,  204, 
206  ;  the  big  well,  206  ;  stand  pipes 
and  air  chambers  on  mains,  206  ; 
water  turbines,  206.  Waltham- 
STOW  RESERVOIRS,  206 ;  water 
mains,  figures,  206  ;  future  exten- 
sions of  supply,  208  ;  what  chalk 
deposits  do  for  London,  208. 

Hulett  ore  unloader.  III.,  257-259. 

Hunter,  W.  H.,  L,  169. 

Hurricane,  effects  of,  II.,  169. 

Hydraulic  bender,  for  ship's  frames,  11., 
71  ;  erector,  for  raising  segments  of 
iron  tunnel  lining,  I.,  300 ;  presses, 
in  bridge  building,  I.,  39  (Saltash 
Bridge) ;  I.,  150  (Britannia  Bridge)  ; 
L,  331  (Forth  Bridge);  riveter,  IL, 
252 ;  spade,  for  clay  cutting,  I., 
327  ;   wheel  press,  II.,  252. 

Hydrostatic  disc  in  torpedoes,  I.,  435. 


I 

Icebreakers — Baikal, I., 65-78;  Ermack, 
IIL,  122. 

Ice  "  gorges  "  in  Mississippi,  II.,  164. 

Ice  jam  in  Niagara  gorge.  III.,  287. 

Ice  "  shovings  "  on  St.  Lawrence,  I.,  206. 

Imperial  vallev,  EH.,  112,  113. 

Inchgarvie  Island,  I.,  323,  325. 

Indian  coolies  on  Uganda  railway  works, 
II. ,  55. 

Indian  irrigation,  see  "Great  Irrigation 
Wosks  of  India." 

Indian  labourers  on  United  States  irriga- 
tion works,  II.,  99. 

Indians,  frauds  practised  on,  I.,  24; 
their  hostility  to  railroad  men,  III., 
131,  133,  135. 

Ingot-extracting  machines.  III.,  268. 

Internal  combustion  engine— develop- 
ment of  the,  I.,  215-226  ;  for  ships, 
IL,  43. 

Inventiveness  stimulated  by  necessity, 
L.  209. 

Invincible,  Inflexible,  and  Indomitable,  I., 
391. 

Iris — first  British  steel  ship,  I.,  319 ; 
telegraph  ship.  III.,  364. 

[  393  ] 


26 


Iron  used  in  the  constrn'H""  "f  '•'>irx<, 
I..  316. 

IRRIGATION: 
Irrigation  basin  and  porouni<*l  AynUnan, 

II.,  387-389. 
Irrigation  in  India,  nee  "  Great  Irriga- 
tion Works  of  India." 
Irrigation   Work   in   the   United 
States,  IL,  81-ir»2. 

Ancient  irrigators,  81  ;  the  mis- 
sion fathers,  83  ;  first  attempt  at 
irrigation  in  the  United  States  by 
English-speaking  p<oj)le,  83 ;  rice 
growing,  83,  85  ;  natural  irrigation 
on  the  Mississippi,  84  ;  M'"-"""' 
irrigation  work  in  Utah,  85  ; 
ment  of  the  West,  86  ;  the  < . : 
colony,  87 ;  boom  in  irrigittion 
canals,  87 ;  steady  growth  in  irrigated 
area,  87.  Arid  regions  of  thb 
United  States  :  great  jilains,  88  ; 
Platte  and  Yellowstone  rivers,  89  ; 
Arkansas  river,  90.  The  trub 
Desert  :  laws  recognizing  irriga- 
tion— Desert  Land  Act,  91 ;  Carey 
Act,  92 ;  Reclamation  Act,  93 ; 
vigorous  measures  for  increase  of 
irrigation,  93.  Uncompahgbe  Pro- 
ject, Colorado,  95-98  ;  a  difficult 
problem,  95 ;  wonderful  surveying 
of  river  Gunnison,  95 ;  difficult 
levelling  over  the  moimtains,  97 ; 
subsidiary  work,  98.  The  Gunnison 
Tunnel,  98.  Salt  River  Project, 
Arizona,  98-100 ;  Roosevelt  dam, 
98  ;  Indian  labourers,  99  ;  power- 
station,  100.  Other  lar<;e  irriga- 
tion works  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, 101  ;  Yuma  dam,  101 ; 
summary,  102. 

Ismailia,  I.,  253,  255. 

Isthmus  of  Panama,  IL,  129,  134,  135. 


Jacketing  cylinders  of  gas  engines,  I., 
225  ;   of  st«am  engines,  216. 

Jacobs,  Charles  M.,  IL,  110. 

James  I.  and  the  New  River,  III.,  194. 

Jordan,  railway  bridge  over  the,  I., 
341. 

"  June  Bug  "  aeroplane.  III.,  11. 

Jungfrau  railway.  III.,  306-311. 


K 

Kafue  Bridge,  IL.  lt}0. 

Key-plates  of  Forth  Bridge  towers,  I., 
330  331. 

Key  West,  I.,  129,  140. 

Kicking  Horse  Pass,  I.,  272 ;  highest 
point  reached  by  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  276. 

Kingston-Holvhead  liners,  I.,  319. 

Kinlochleve'n  Works  of  the  British 
Aluminium  Company,  The,  IIL. 
272-277. 

Aluminium,  its  uses  and  prepara- 
tion, 272,  273  ;  the  electric  furnace, 
273  ;  need  for  cheap  current,  273  ; 
Kinlochleven,  274  ;  Blaokwater  dam 
and  lake,  274,  275;  the  aqueduct — 
conduit  and  pipe  lines,  275 ;  an 
ingenious  pipe  joint,  275,  276 ; 
Pelton  wheels,  276  ;  governing  the 
flow,  277  ;  the  power-house  and 
generators,  277. 

Klondike,  gold  discoveries  at,  I.,  21. 

Korting  gas  engines,  I.,  215.  221-224. 

Krupp  cemented  armour,  L,  390,  391, 
399. 


VOL.  IIL 


Labotjr,  native,  for  African  Transcon- 
tinental Telegraph,  I.,  195,  196. 

Labour-saving  machinery,  see  "  Agricul- 
tural Engineering,"  "  Remarkable 
Machinery  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  Iron  and  Steel,"  "  Dredgers," 
"  Excavating  Machinery,"  "  Steam 
Shovels,"  "  Track  Throwers." 

Ladle  cranes,  III.,  267. 

Lake  Bennett,  I.,  29. 

Lambert,  the  diver  employed  on  the 
Severn  Tunnel  works,  I.,  83,  84. 

Langdon,  Shephard,  and  Co.,  contractors 
for  the  construction  of  part  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  I.,  262, 
263. 

"  La  Patrie,"  "  La  Republique,"  and 
"  La  Villc  de  Paris  "  airships.  III., 
56,  57,  58. 

Last  spike  driven — of  first  American 
transcontinental  railway.  III.,  139  ; 
of  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  I., 
282, 283  ;  White  Pass  Railway,  L,  32. 

Launching  a  ship,  II.,  75-78. 

Lebaudy  airship.  III.,  56. 

Leigh,  John  George,  on  "  The  Panama 
Canal,"  II.,  129  ;  on  "  The  Water- 
Powor  Stations  of  Niagara  Falls," 
II.,  295  ;  on  "  The  Water  Supply  of 
New  York,;'  III.,  97. 

Lengthening  ships,  III.,  125. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  inventor  of  canal 
locks.  III.,  167. 

Lesseps,  Count  Ferdinand  de,  I.,  155  ; 
conceives  idea  of  Suez  Canal,  I.,  241 ; 
surveys  the  route,  I.,  243 ;  visits  Con- 
stantinople, I.,  243  ;  wins  over  the 
Khedive,  I.,  244;  visits  England  to 
raise  funds  for  constructing  the 
Suez  Canal,  I.,  244 ;  turns  first  spade- 
ful of  sand  at  Port  Said,  I.,  244 ;  his 
estimate  of  traffic  that  would  pass 
through  the  canal,  I.,  248  ;  his  con- 
nection with  first  and  second 
Panama  Canal  companies,  II.,  132  ; 
draws  out  plans  for  a  railway  from 
Orenburg  to  Tashkent,  II.,  375  ; 
delivers  oration  at  inauguration 
ceremony  of  the  statue  of  Liberty, 
New  York,  III.,  256. 

"  Lift  "  of  kite,  IIL,  5. 

Lighthouse,  the  Story  of  the,  I.,  370- 
384. 

Bell  Rock  lighthouse,  373 ;  Bishop 
Rock  iron  lighthouse,  378  ;  Bishop 
Rock  granite  lighthouse,  379  ;  great 
difficulties  encountered,  379,  380 ; 
external  casing  added,  380  ;  landing 
the  stones,  381 ;  fixing  the  stones, 
381  ;  safety  nets  needed,  382 ; 
violence  of  the  waves,  384 ;  Dhu 
Heartach  lighthouse,  374 ;  early 
modern  lighthouses,  370 ;  Eddy- 
stone  lighthouse — Winstanley's,  371 ; 
Rudyerd's,  371  ;  Smeaton's,  371  ; 
new,  375 ;  Pharos  of  Alexandria, 
371  ;  Skerry vore  lighthouse,  374  ; 
Wolf  Rock  lighthouse,  375. 

lighthouse's  stability  depends  on  weight, 
not  adhesion,  I.,  373. 

Lilienthal,  Otto,  experimenter  in  avia- 
tion, IIL,  6 

"  Lines  "  of  Carnac,  I.,  7. 

Lining,  iron — for  tunnels,  I.,  56,  308, 
309  ;  for  petroleum  wells,  IL,  328  ; 
for  water  wells.  III.,  337. 

Lions  attack  workmen  on  Cape  to  Cairo 
Railway,  IL,  156 ;  at  Tsavo,  Uganda 
Railway,     II. ,     56,    57  ;     blockade 


operator     of     the     African     Trans- 
continental Telegraph,  I.,  200. 

Liquid  fuel  and  its  uses,  II.,  340. 

Liverpool  Salvage  Association,  I.,  42. 

LOCKS : 

Assouan  dam,  II. ,  398  ;  Barton, 
I.,  160 ;  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
Canal,  III.,  175 ;  dock  entrance, 
IL,  177,  184,  185,  186;  Eastham, 
I.,  158 ;  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal, 
IIL,  174;  Irlam,  L,  153;  Mode 
Wheel,  I.,  167  ;  old  stvle,  IIL,  167  ; 
Panama  Canal,  11.,  139,  144  ;  Penn- 
sylvania Canal,  IIL,  175 ;  pneumatic 
most  recent  type,  IIL,  168,  169 ; 
Poe,  IIL,  171,  172;  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  Canal,  IIL,  170 ;  Weitzel,  III., 
171,  172. 

Locomotives,  Steam,  of  To-day,  IL, 
193-216. 

British,  193-199 ;  Colonial,  200, 
201 ;  Continental  202-200 ;  Amer- 
ican, 207-210,  211,  213,  214,  215. 
Classification :  Four-coupled  ex- 
press— Great  Eastern  Railway,  194  ; 
Great  Western  Railway,  194  ;  Ma- 
dras Railway,  200 ;  Paris-Orleans 
Railway,  203.  Four-coupled  "  At- 
lantic "  type  :  Great  Northern 
Railway,  195  ;  Great  Western  Rail- 
way, 195 ;  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
Railway,  201  ;  Hungarian  State 
railways,  203  ;  Chicago  and  North- 
western Railway,  208 ;  Philadel- 
phia and  Reading  Railway,  208. 
Four-coupled  tank  :  Ballycastle 
Railway,  199  ;  Bavarian  State  rail- 
ways, 206.  Six-coupled  express  : 
Caledonian  Railway,  196 ;  Great 
Central  Railway,  196  ;  London  and 
South-Western  Railway,  197  ;  Indian 
railways,  200 ;  Italian  State  rail- 
ways, 203  ;  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way, 209 ;  London  and  North- 
western Railway  (goods),  196.  Six- 
coupled  "  Pacific  "  type  :  Great 
Western  Railway,  "  Great  Bear," 
198  ;  Baden  State,  204  ;  Chicago, 
St.  Paul,  Minneapolis,  and  Omaha, 
209  ;  Pennsylvania  Railroad  (largest 
passenger  locomotive  in  the  world), 
210.  Six-couPLED  "  Prairie  " 
ty^pe  :  Italian  State  railwaj's,  204 ; 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Railway, 
209.  Six-couPLED  "  Mogul  "  type  : 
New  York,  Ontario,  and  Western 
Railway,  208.  Six- coupled  tank  : 
Alsace-Lorraine  railways,  206;  Ber- 
lin Metropolitan  Railway,  206 ; 
Northern  Railway  of  France,  202. 
Eight-coupled  "Consolidation" 
TYPE  :  Great  Western  Railway,  193  ; 
Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  201 ;  Grand 
Trimk  Railway,  210  ;  Saxon  State 
railways,  205.  Eight  -  coupled 
GOODS :  Great  Northern  Railway,199 ; 
Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway, 
199.  Eight-coupled  tank  :  Trans- 
andine  Railway,  201.  Ten-coupled  : 
Austrian  State  railways,  205;  Servian 
State  railways,  205 ;  Buffalo,  Ro- 
chester, and  Pittsburg  Railway, 
"  Decapod,"  210.  Articulated  : 
"  Johnstone  "  eight-cylinder  com- 
pound, 210;  "  Fairlie,"  Saxon  State 
railways,  210  ;  "  Mallet,"  Hedjaz 
Railway,  212;  "Mallet,"  Pekin- 
Kalgan  Railway,  212  ;  "  Mallet," 
Erie  Railway,  213,  215  ;  "  Mallet," 
Southern  Pacific  Railway,  213,  215  ; 
"  Meyer,"  214.     Various  :   "  Shay," 

[3©4] 


IL,  214;  combined  rack  and  ad- 
hesion, IL,  223;  Crane,  IL,  223; 
Fell,  III.,  202;  Uganda  Railway, 
IL,  62;  ploughing.  III.,  290,  297. 

Locomotives  conveyed  by  road,  I.,  175. 

Locomotives,  Electric,  IL,  217-222. 
Their  place  in  modern  transporta- 
tion, II. ,  217;  for  use  on  crowded 
lines,  II. ,  218  ;  for  tunnel  work,  II. , 
218  ;  current  used,  IL,  220  ;  tested 
against  steam  locomotives,  II. ,  220, 
221  ;  high  speed  trials  near  Berlin, 
II. ,  221;  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  II. , 
222;  Simplon  railway,  IIL,  160; 
Jungfrau  railway,  IIL,  309. 

London  clay,  tunnelling  in,  I.,  227,  239. 

London  drainage.  III.,  209-225;  see 
"  Wonderful  Drainage  System  of 
London." 

London  Electric  Power-Stations,  ITL, 
226-231;  see  "Electric  Power-Sta- 
tions of  London." 

"  Loops,'  the,  on  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way, L,  281. 

Lubrication,  forced,  for  aeroplane  engines, 
IIL,  30,  31,  32,  34,  35. 

Lucin  cut-off,  IIL,  143,  145. 

Lusitania,  the,  I.,  317,  318,  319,  320, 
354  ;   IL,  38,  39. 


M 

Ma' an,  Hedjaz  Railway,  I.,  344. 

Macdonald,  Sir  John,  promoter  of  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway,  I.,  257. 

M'Farlane,  John,  on  Manchester  as  an 
importing  and  exporting  centre,  I., 
170. 

Machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel.  III.,  257-271. 

Macintyre,  Robert,  on  "  Docks,"  II.,  173. 

M'Kechnie,  James,  II. ,  43. 

Magazines  of  a  battleship,  I.,  386. 

Magnets,  lifting.  III.,  262,  263. 

Manchester  docks,  I.,  167,  168. 

Manchester  Ship  Canal,  The,  L,  153- 
171. 

Scheme  for,  153 ;  alternative 
scheme,  1 55  ;  Parliamentary  powers 
for  construction  granted,  156  ;  en- 
trance to  the  Ship  Canal,  159 ; 
embankments,  159-162 ;  Runcorn 
docks,  164  ;  facts  and  figures  about 
the  canal,  165  ;  railway  crossings, 
165;  Barton  swing  aqueduct,  166; 
docks,  167,  168;  effects  of  the 
canal,  169,  170. 

Mangin  reflector,  the,  I.,  249. 

Mansergh,  James,  engineer  of  the  Elan- 
Birmingham  aqueduct.  IIL,  189. 

Marconi  Towers  at  Poldhu,  Corn= 
wall,  The,  IL,  438-444. 

Marconi,  Guglielmo,  II. ,  439. 

Matabele  rebellion  and  the  African 
Transcontinental  Telegraph,  I.,  194. 

Matachin,  IL,  134. 

Mattresses — for  railway  across  Chat  Moss, 
I. ,  369  ;  for  Colorado  River  closure, 
IIL,  119. 

Maudi^lay,  Field,  and  Co.,  makers  of 
Thames  Tunnel  shield,  I.,  185. 

Mauretania,  the,  L,  319,  320,  357  :  IL, 
38,  39,  78. 

Maxim,  Sir  Hiram,  IIL,  6,  11  ;  on  the 
future  of  aeronautics  in  warfare, 
IIL,  63. 

Measuring  distances  for  the  Forth  Bridge 
piers,  I.,  324. 

Medina,  L,  339,  346. 

Meissner  Pasha,  engineer  of  the  Hedjaz 
Railwav,  I.,  340,  345. 


Menai   Straits,    the   bridges   of   the,    I., 

142-152. 
Menhirs,  I.,  7. 
Mercurif,  the,  I.,  319. 
Merv,  il.,  378,  381. 

Metacontro,  metacentric  height,  I.,  353. 
Metcalfo,  Sir  Charles,  II.,  158. 
Metropolitan    lafo    Assurance    building, 

Now  York,  II.,  17,  19. 
Metropolitan  Water  Board,  III.,  196. 
Microphone,  marine,  I.,  432. 
Moir,  E.  W.,  II.,  109,  118. 
Mole  drainer.  III.,  292. 
Monoliths— dock  wall,  IL,  183;    Dublin 

harbour,    II.,    183,    184;    Gibraltar 

breakwater.   III.,    75 :     La   Guaira, 

III.,  76  ;    Zeobrugge  harbour.   III., 

75. 
Mont  Cenis  Pass,  III..  301. 
Montauk  theatre,  transport  of,  II.,  446, 

447. 
Mormons  as  irrigators,  II.,  85  ;    and  the 

Central  Pacifie  Railway,  III.,  138. 
Mosquitoes,  II.,  137. 
Motor,  agricultural,  m.,  298,  299. 
Motor  boat,  torpedo  craft,  I.,  425. 
Motor  cars,  racing,  ste  "  Development  of 

the  Racing  Motor  Car." 
Motor,  electric  "  waterproof,"  I.,  430. 
Motor  generators.  III.,  229. 
Mouldloft,  II.,  68,  70. 
Mules,  intelligent,  I.,  265. 
"  Muskegs,"    or    swamps,    on    Canadian 

Pacific  Railway,  L,  261,  264. 
Myddlcton,  Sir  Hugh,  and  the  New  River, 

III.,  194,  195. 


N 

Nairobi,  II.,  54. 

Nantes  transporter  bridge,  I.,  292. 

Needle  dams.  III.,  176. 

Neutral  axis  of  beam,  I.,  102. 

Newcomen's  "  atmospheric  "  engine.  III., 
195. 

Newport  transporter  bridge,  I.,  291. 

New  River,  the.  III.,  193,  194,  195,  198. 

New  York  Subway,  The,  II.,  342- 
354. 

Why  it  was  constructed,  342 ; 
cost  and  extent,  342 ;  location, 
342  ;  "  express  "  and  "  local  "  train 
services  intended,  343  ;  shallow 
level  tunnels,  343  ;  normal  box- 
type  structure,  343  ;  modifications 
for  special  reasons,  344  ;  contract 
let  to  J.  B.  M'Donald,  344  ;  organi- 
zation of  labour,  344  ;  troubles  with 
buried  pipes,  345  ;    sewer  diversion, 

345  ;  excavating  and  building  the 
subway,  345  ;  an  easy  section,  345  ; 
a  section  complicated  by  car  tracks, 

346  ;  work  along  Broadway,  347  ; 
car  tracks  carried  on  temporary 
trusses,  347  ;  supporting  the  columns 
of  the  elevated  railway,  348;  pass- 
ing through  the  foundations  of  a 
skyscraper,  348  ;  tunnelling  under 
a  monument,  348  ;  subway  stations, 
349,  350;  automatic  signals,  350,  351 ; 
the  huge  power-house,  351 ;  rolling 
stock,  351 ;  congestion  through  heavy 
traffic,  353;  delay  caused  by  a  "cross- 
over," 354  ;  multi-door  cars  adopted, 
354;  multi-track  stations  suggested, 
354  ;  subwaj-s  of  the  future,  354. 

Now  York — geography  of,  II.,  258,  259, 
260  ;   population  of.  III..  97. 

New  York,  water  supply  of,  II.,  97-112; 
see  "  \V'ater  S)i])ply  of  New  York." 

Niagara  Falls,  water-power  stations  of. 


11.,    295  311;     see    "  Wator-Power 
Stations  of  Niagara  Fail-s." 

Niagara,  U.S.N.S.,  used  for  laying  first 
Atlantic  cable,  II.,  285,  286,  288, 
355  357,  360. 

Nile  Dams  and  the  Assouan  Reser- 
voir, The,  IT.,  3S5-40H. 

The  .Nile  in  early  history,  385; 
its  sources,  conUuonts,  course,  and 
fluctuations,  386  ;  basin  irrigation, 
387  ;  perennial  irrigation,  388  ;  the 
cotton    crop,    388  ;    primitive    irri- 

fation  appliances  —  the  Shadoof, 
akieh,  Taboot,  and  Natala,  389. 
The  Delta  barrage,  389 ;  a  failure, 
390  ;  converted  into  a  fortress,  390  ; 
old  foundations  strengthened  by 
British  engineers,  390 ;  details  of 
the  barrage,  390  ;  how  the  founda- 
tions were  secured,  391  ;  barrage 
usable,  but  further  storage  needed, 
391.  The  Assouan  dam  and  res- 
ervoir, 391  ;  scheme  and  site 
adopted,  393 ;  dimensions,  con- 
struction, and  other  features  of  the 
dam,  393  ;  weight  compared  with 
that  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  393  ; 
contract  signed  and  work  begun, 
393  ;  enclosing  the  site  with  sudds, 
393,  394 ;  drastic  measures  for 
conquering  the  current,  394 ;  ex- 
posing the  river  bed,  395 ;  progress, 
completion,  and  opening  of  the  dam, 
395,  397;  Stoney  sluices,  397,  398; 
locks  and  navigation  canal,  398 ; 
aprons  to  withstand  scour,  398. 
The  A.SSIOUT  barrage,  399  ;  Ibra- 
himiych  Canal,  399  ;  details  of  the 
barrage,  399  ;  how  the  foimdations 
were  laid,  401  ;  quick  work  needed, 
402  ;  progress  of  work,  402  ;  diffi- 
culties overcome,  402 ;  joining  up 
the  two  ends  of  the  masonry,  403  ; 
barrage  finished,  404.  Zifta  bar- 
rage, 404.  EsNEH  barrage,  404, 
405  ;  its  purpose  and  construction, 
405  ;  special  typo  of  sluice  gates, 
405  ;  scheme  for  raising  the  Assouan 
dam,  405  ;  the  beautiful  island  of 
Philse  and  its  monuments,  406  ;  sub- 
mersion unavoidable,  400  ;  founda- 
tions of  buildings  underpinned,  406; 
how  the  height  of  the  dam  was  in- 
creased, 407.  Conclusion:  review 
of  five  great  schemes,  407  ;  their 
effects,  increase  of  value  in  land  and 
crops,  408. 

Norwegian  railway,  Bergen  to  Kristiania, 
III.,  347-356  ;  see  "  Bergen-Kris- 
ti?-nia  Railway." 

Niirnberg  gas  engines,  I.,  221. 


O 
Oil  -  Fields,     Engineering    in    the 
World's,  II.,  321-:341. 

Engineering  requirements  for  oil- 
fields, 321  ;  huge  capital  invested 
in  petroleum  industry,  322  ;  ro- 
mances of  "  striking  oil,"  quickly 
won  fortunes,  322  ;  oi  'gin  and  dis- 
tribution of  petroleum,  322 ;  oil- 
field geology,  323  ;  surface  indica- 
tions of  the  proximity  of  oil  de- 
posits, 323 ;  the  sacred  fires  of 
Baku,  323  ;  asphalt  deposits,  325  ; 
the  Trinidad  pitch  lake,  325  ; 
ozokerite  in  Gaiicia,  325 ;  Scotch 
oil-bearing  shales,  325.  Sinking 
oil  wells,  326 ;  dug  wells  of 
Roumania,  325,  326  ;    discovery  of 

[395] 


mitroleum  deposits  in  the  Unif'd 
States,  326 ;  two  main  systema 
of  well-sinking — (1)  percussion,  (2) 
rotary,  3VJ6  ;  the  percussion  sy.stem 
subdivided  into — {a)  cable  drilling, 
(5)  polf  drilling,  326 ;  boring  ap- 
paratus (ion  ik,  engine,  and  tools, 
327  ;  the  prin<iplos  of  boring,  327  ; 
removing  sludge,  328 ;  lining  the 
well,  328,  329 ;  cost  of  drilling, 
329 ;  recovering  lost  tools,  329 ;  the 
violence  of  oil  and  gas  under  pres- 
sure, 332;  uncontrollable  "gushers," 
332;  fires  in  oil-licMs  — prc<  autions, 
extinguishing  apparatus,  333;  mag- 
nificence of  a  burning  "spout^^r,"  333; 
extinguishing  a  burning  well,  334. 
Raising  oil  to  the  surface,  334; 
pumping,  334;  baling,  335;  use  of  the 
air  lift,"  .336.  Distillation  and 
REFINING,  336 ;  chemistry  of  petro- 
leum, 336;  the  effect  of  heat  on  the 
petroleum  constituents,  336;  "cra^rk- 
ing,"  .336;  the  various  distillates, 
336.  Transport  of  petroleum, 
336;  oil  pipe  lines,  337;  pipes  rifled 
to  minimize  friction,  337;  American 
pipe  lines,  337,  338 ;  an  ingenious 
axitomatic  pipe  cleaner,  338 ;  Baku- 
Batoum  pipe  line,  338  ;  other  notable 
pipe  lines,  338 ;  natural  gas,  its  occur- 
rence and  value,  338,  339  ;  oil  tank 
ships,  339  ;  a  floating  town  on  the 
Caspian  Sea,  339,  340  ;  liquid  fuel 
and  its  uses,  340,  .341  ;  future  of 
the  oil  industry,  341. 

Oil  fuel,  I.,  425  ;  on  Trans-Caspian  Rail- 
way, II.,  378. 

Open-hearth    method   of   steel    making, 
III.,  265. 

Ore  unloaders.  III.,  257,  260. 

Oroya-Lima  Railway,  I.,  126. 

Oscillating  marine  engines,  IL,  35. 

Otto    "  cycle,"    in    internal   combustion 
engines,  I.,  216. 

Overland  route  to  India,  I.,  242. 


Paddles  v.  screw  propellers,  11.,  2'.t. 

Painting  the  Victoria  Bridge,  I.,  212. 

Panama  Canal,  The,  IL,  129-149. 

Need  for  piercing  the  L^thmus  of 
Panama,  130 ;  a  canal  for  all 
nations,  130 ;  construction  a  tre- 
mendous task,  131,  137;  impetus 
given  to  scheme  by  discovery  of 
gold  in  California,  131  ;  old  Panama 
railway,  131  ;  many  schemes  for  a 
canal  projected,  132 ;  first  and 
second  Panama  Canal  companies, 
132  ;  sale  of  French  canal  to  the 
United  States,  133  ;  climate  of  the 
Panama  Isthmus,  134 ;  across  the 
isthmus,  135 ;  work  done  up  to 
1904.  135 ;  successful  fight  with 
disea.se,  136  ;  lock  v.  sea-level  canal 
question  settled,  139  ;  Gatun  lake, 
139,  142  ;  Gatun  dam,  the  largest 
in  the  world,  140 ;  locks,  144  ; 
enormous  quantify  of  material  to 
be  removecj,    144  ;    army  engineers 

take  charge,   145  ;    st<?ad> -—  -.= 

145;   labour-saving  MACH I 
— steam   shovels,    146  ;     r  i 

spreaders  and  track- throwers,  147  ; 
New  Panama  Railway,  148  ;  huge 
cost  of  the  canal.  148. 

Pardoe,  Stephen,  on  "  The  Construction 
of  the  Canadian  Pa  ■'■  '^  ='—-"  " 
I..  257. 


Parrott,  J.  R.,  engineer  of  Florida  East 
Coast  Extension  Railway,  I.,  139. 

Parseval  airship,  III.,  61. 

Paying-out  gear  for  cable-laying — that 
used  for  first  Atlantic  cable,  II., 
285  ;  Bright's,  II.,  292,  294  ;  III., 
366. 

Peacock,  I.  M.,  on  "  Transportation 
Canals  of  the  United  States,"  III., 
163. 

Pearson,  S.,  and  Son,  the  famous  con- 
tractors— Old  Hudson  River  tunnel, 
II.,  109 ;  East  River  tunnels  for 
Pennsylvania  Railroad,  117  ;  Vera 
Cruz  harbour,  III.,  76  ;  New  Admir- 
alty harbour,  Dover,  III.,  78. 

Pelton  wheels,  III.,  276. 

Penetrative  power  of  12-inch  guns,  I., 
390. 

Periscope,  I.,  431. 

Perkins,  W.  T.,  on  "The  Manchester 
Ship  Canal,"  I.,  153  ;  on  "  Great 
Underpinning  Achievements,"  III., 
312. 

Peto,  Brassey,  and  Betts,  contractors  for 
the  Victoria  Bridge,  I.,  214 

Petroleum,  .9ec  "  Oil  Fields,  Engineering 
in  the  World's,"  II.,  321-341. 

Pharos  of  Alexandria,  I.,  370. 

PhiL-p,  island  of,  II.,  405. 

Phillips,  Horatio,  experimenter  with 
aeroplanes,  III.,  6,  7. 

Picking-up  gear  for  cable- laying,  II., 
369  ;   III,  368. 

Piers  for  Forth  Bridge  towers,  I.,  325, 
326,  328. 

Pile-driving — bridges  of  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  I.,  279 ;  Lucin  cut-off 
trestles.  III.,  145  ;  Manchester  Ship 
Canal,  I.,  160-162  ;  New  Erie  Canal 
works.  III.,  169 ;  with  water  jot, 
II.,  121. 

Piles — for  Dover  harbour  works.  III.,  79 ; 
reinforced  concrete,  TI.,  426,  427  ; 
screw,  TI.,  113. 

Pilot  tunnel,  I.,  58;  II.,  109. 

Pintsch  lightbuovs  on  Suez  Canal,  I., 
249. 

Pipe  cleaner,  automatic,  for  oil  pipe 
lines,  II.,  338. 

Pipe  joints— aqueduct  syphons.  III.,  185 ; 
"  muff "  for  very  high  pressures, 
III.,  275,  276 

Pipe  lines  —  Kinlochleven,  III.,  275  ; 
petroleum,  II.,  337,  338;  see  also 
"  Aqueducts." 

Pipes  for — aqueduct  syphons.  III.,  185; 
London  water  mains.  III.,  206. 

Planer,  a  huge  metal,  II.,  382. 

Plate  girders,  I.,  104. 

Plating  a  ship,  II.,  74. 

Platte  River,  II..  89. 

Ploughs,  steam,  III.,  290,  291,  298. 

Plymouth  breakwater,  III.,  70-72. 

Pole,  F.  J.  C,  on  "  The  Construction  of 
Fishguard  Harbour,"  I.,  172;  on 
"  The  Conversion  of  the  Gauge  of 
the  Great  AVestern  Railway  Main 
Line,"  I.,  108  ;  on  "  The  Royal 
Albert  Bridge  at  Saltash,"  I.,  34. 

Poling  boards,  I.,  186  (Thames  Tunnel), 
306. 

Port  Said,  L,  245. 

Portugaleti  transporter  bridge,  I.,  289. 

Posilippo,  grotto  of,  I.,  19. 

POWER  STATIONS: 

Caban  Coch  dam, III.,  189 ;  Chicago 
drainage  canal.  III.,  174;  elevated,  in 
steel  frame  building,  II.,  15;  Jung- 
frau  railway,  III.,  307 ;  Kinloch- 
leven, m.,  277;  London,  see  "Elec- 


tric Power-Stations  of  London,"  III., 
226-231 ;  New  York  subway,  II.,  351 ; 
Niagara  Falls,  see  "  Water-Power 
Stations  of  Niagara  Falls,"  II.,  295- 
311 ;  Roosevelt  dam,  II.,  100. 

Price's  rotary  excavator,  I.,  58,  301,  302, 
303. 

Producers,  gas,  I.,  217. 

Propellers,  aerial.  III.,  41-44. 

PropellingMachineryofaShip.The, 
IL,  29-43. 

Paddle  v.  screw,  29  ;  increase  in 
boiler  pressures,  29 ;  expansive 
working  of  steam,  30  ;  Scotch  and 
water-tube  boilers,  31,  32  ;  forced 
draught,  33  ;  quadruple  expansion 
engines,  33 ;  the  condenser,  35  ; 
paddle  engines,  35 ;  oscillating 
engines,  35  ;  diagonal  direct-acting 
engines,  36 ;  marine  steam  tur- 
bines, 36 ;  Curtis,  Rateau,  and 
Zoelly  turbines,  36  ;  Parsons  marine 
turbine,  36,  37  ;  turbines  of  Lusi- 
tania  and  Mauretania,  38,  39  :  boilers 
of  Lusitania  and  Mauretania,  39  ; 
combination  of  piston  engines  and 
turbines,  40-42  ;  internal  combus- 
tion engines,  42,  43. 

"  Propulsive  coefficient,"  I.,  356. 

Protection  of  banks  of  Suez  Canal,  I., 
249. 

Pumping  engines — sewage,  III.,  221, 224; 
water,  20] ,  203,  204,  206. 

Pumping — petroleum,  II.,  334  ;  water 
from  Gladiator,  I.,  46. 

Pumping  stations — sewage  :  Abbey  mills, 
IIL,  221  ;  Crossness,  224  ;  Dept- 
ford,  224;  Lot's  Road,  223,  224; 
North  Woolwich,  223 — water  :  Leo 
Bridge,  203,  204,  206. 

Pyramids  of  Egypt,  I,  9,  13,  14. 


QuEENSFERRY,    South    and    North,    I., 

321,  325. 
Quicksand,  II.,  117. 


Race  between  electric  and  steam  loco- 
motives, II.,  221. 

Races,  motor  car.  III.,  321-334;  see 
"  Development  of  the  Racing  Motor 
Car." 

Rail  joints,  self-adjusting,  on  Forth 
Bridge,  I.,  336. 

Railway  Brakes,  IL,  246-251. 

Railway  of  the  Far  North,  A,  I., 
21-33. 

Discovery  of  gold  on  the  Yukon 
River,  21  ;  rush  to  Klondike,  22  ; 
difficulties  of  travel,  22 ;  exciting 
times  at  Skaguay,  23  ;  "  Soapy  " 
Smith,  23  ;  the  "White  Pass  trail, 
24  ;  frauds  perpetrated  on  Indian 
guides,  24 ;  sufferings  of  baggage 
animals,  25  ;  the  trail  covered  with 
dead  horses,  25 ;  a  railway  pro- 
jected, 25  ;  details  of  the  route,  25  ; 
work  commenced,  25  ;  legal  diffi- 
culties at  Skaguay,  26  ;  tame  bears 
in  camp,  26  ;  labour  troubles,  27  ; 
intense  cold  hinders  work,  27  ;  first 
train  reaches  Summit,  27  ;  the 
sleigh  trail,  28 ;  fleet  organized  for 
the  Yukon  traffic,  28 ;  first  train 
reaches  Lake  Bennett,  29 ;  a  re- 
markable year's  work,  29 ;  the 
Yukon  River  waterway,  29 ;  prep- 
arations  for   second  winter's   work. 


30 ;  trouble  with  frozen  ground,  30  ; 
progress  along  Lake  Bennett,  32 ; 
last  spike  driven,  July  29,  1900,  32  ; 
details  of  the  railway,  32 ;  gra- 
dients, 32  ;  bridges,  33  ;  alignment, 
33  ;  snow-ploughs,  33. 
RAILWAYS: 

Alpine,  see  "  Two  Remarkable 
Alpine  Railways,"  III.,  301-311  ; 
Barmen-EIberfeld,  see  "  Barmen- 
Elberfeld  Railway,"  IL,  125-128; 
Beira-Salisbury,  IL,  155 ;  Bergen- 
Kristiania,  see  "  Bergen-Kristiania 
Railway,  The  Construction  of  the," 
III.,  347-356;  Canadian  Pacific,  see 
"  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  The 
Construction  of  the,"  I.,  257-286  ; 
Cape  to  Cairo,  see  "  Cape  to  Cairo 
Railway,"  IL,  150-162;  Central 
Pacific,  see  "  Construction  of  the 
first  American  Transcontinental 
Railway,"  IIL,  129-147  ;  Fell,  III., 
301-306;  Hedjaz,  see  "  Hedjaz 
Railway,  The,"  I.,  339-349  ;  Jung- 
frau,  IIL,  306-311  ;  Orenburg- 
Tashkent,  IL,  381;  Oroya-Lima, 
I.,  126 ;  Panama,  new,  IL,  148 ; 
Panama,  old,  IL,  131  ;  Snaefell, 
IIL,  302  ;  Trans-Caspian,  see  "  Rus- 
sian Railways  in  Central  Asia," 
IL,  375-381  ;  Trans-Siberian,  see 
"  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  The," 
in.,  81-95;  Tube,  of  London,  see 
"  Tube  Railways  of  London,  The," 
L,  226-240,  300-311;  Underground 
Freight,  of  Chicago,  see  "  Under- 
ground Freight  Railways  of  Chicago, 
The,"  L,  359-367;  Uganda,  see 
"  Uganda  Railway,  The,"  II. ,  50- 
64  ;  Union  Pacific,  see  "  Construc- 
tion of  the  First  American  Trans- 
continental Railway,  The,"  IIL,  129- 
147;  Wengeralp,  IIL,306;  Wetter- 
horn,  see  "  Wetterhom  Aerial  Ral- 
way,  The,"  IL,  189-192;  White 
Pass  and  Yukon,  see  "  Railway  of 
the  Far  North,"  L,  21-33. 
Rainfall  of  India,  HI.,  233,  246. 
Reaping  machines,  IIL,  293,  297. 
Reclamation    Act,    promoting   irrigation 

in  the  United  States,  II. ,  93. 
Record-breaking  in  laying  railway  track, 

IL,  151,  159. 
Refining  petroleum,  IL,  336. 
Reflector,  Mangin,  I.,  249. 
Reinforced  concrete  armour,  I.,  403. 
Reinforced  Concrete  Construction, 
IL,  418-43?. 

Stone  and  brick  work,  418  ;  cast- 
iron  introduced  for  beams  and 
columns,  419  ;  steel  beams  adopted, 
419  ;  what  concrete  is,  and  how 
made,  419,  420  ;  Portland  cement, 
its  manufacture  and  advantages, 
420 ;  what  reinforced  concrete  is, 
421  ;  disposal  of  materials,  421  ; 
cost  of  reinforced  concrete  as  com- 
pared with  steel,  422  ;  stresses  in  a 
beam,  422 ;  distribution  of  steel 
bars  in  a  reinforced  concrete  beam, 
423 ;  properties  of  concrete  and 
steel,  424  ;  their  expansion,  tensile 
strength,  etc.,  424 ;  many  uses  of 
reinforced  concrete,  425  ;  reinforced 
concrete  columns,  425 ;  arrange- 
ment of  steel  bars  in  reinforced  con- 
crete columns,  426  ;  reinforced  con- 
crete piles,  427 ;  many  uses  for 
reinforced  concrete,  428  ;  the  new 
General  Post  Office  buildings,  430- 
432. 


[396] 


Remarkable  Machinery  used  in  the 
Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel, 

III.,  257-271. 

Steel  -  works'  machinery,  257  ; 
Hulott  ore  unloader.  257,  258,  259  ; 
special  ore  -  carrying  boats,  259  ; 
another  type  of  unloader,  260  ; 
blast  furnaces,  261  ;  automatic  ore 
tips,  262 ;  lifting  magnets  and 
"skull  crackers,"  262,  263;  Bes- 
semer stt>ol-making  process,  263, 
264 ;  the  open-hearth  steel-making 
process,  265  ;  tilting  furnaces,  265  ; 
mechanical  furnace  chargers,  267  ; 
ladle  cranes,  267  ;  ingot  extracting 
machines,  268;  rolling  mills,  269, 
270  ;  slab  chargers,  270,  271  ;  plate- 
cutting  shears,  271  ;  Goliath  cranes, 
271. 

Benard  and  Krebs'  dirigible  balloon,  III., 
1,  51. 

Rennie,  John,  and  the  Plymouth  break- 
water, in.,  71,  72. 

R.E.P.  monoplane.  III.,  28. 

RESERVOIRS: 

Ashokan,  III.,  104 ;  Assouan, 
II.,  391,  foil.  ;  balancing,  in  aque- 
ducts, in.,  179,  181  ;  Beachoroft, 
Honor  Oak,  III.,  201-203  ;  Black- 
water,  Kinlochleven,  III.,  275 ; 
Chenab  Canal  escape,  lU.,  236 ; 
Chingford  New,  III.,  198,  199; 
Frankley,   III.,   191  ;    Indian,   III., 

244  ;  Jerome  Park,  III.,  100  ;  Lake 
Fife,  III.,  246  ;   Lake  Whiting,  HI., 

245  ;  Liverpool  aqueduct,  III.,  181  ; 
Marikanave,  III.,  246 ;  Mugdock, 
IIL,  179;  Old  Croton,  IIL,  99; 
Prescot,  IIL,  180;  Staines,  IIL, 
198  ;   Walthamstow,  IIL,  206. 

Retrieving  tools  and  pipes  from  oil  wells, 
II.,  329  ;  artesian  water  wells,  IIL, 
340-342. 

Rhodes,  Cecil,  and  Zambesi  Bridge,  L, 
91  ;  and  African  Transcontinental 
Telegraph,  L,  193,  194,  195,  203; 
and  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway,  H., 
150-153,  158. 

Ribbands  in  shipbuilding,  II.,  71. 

Rice-growing  in  United  States,  II.,  83,  85. 

Richardson,  Charles,  I.,  80. 

Richardson,  Wigham,  I.,  312. 

Rims,  detachable,  on  motor  cars,  HI., 
330. 

River  Tunnels  of  New  York  City, 
The,  IL,  102-123. 

Sub-river  tunnels  of  London  and 
Now  York  compared,  103  ;  need 
for  sub-river  communication,  104. 
Croton  Aqueduct  Tunnel,  105 ; 
driven  in  the  dry  at  great  depth, 
106.  East  River  Gas  Tunnel, 
106 ;  fault  in  river  bed  discovered, 
106 ;  a  check,  107  ;  compressed 
air  adopted,  107  ;  very  fluid  mud 
encountered,  107  ;  mud  penetrated 
108  ;  tunnel  work  remarkable  for 
high  air-pressures  used,  108.  First 
Hudson  Tunnel,  105  ;  shields  con- 
sidered unnecessary,  108 ;  a  dis- 
astrous blow-out  drowns  twenty 
men,  109 ;  pilot  tunnel  used  to 
advance  headings,  109  ;  an  unsatis- 
factory method,  109  ;  English  con- 
tractors take  over  the  work,  109  ; 
hole  in  river  bed  plugged  with  hay 
and  clay,  109  ;  money  troubles  stop 
operations  in  1891,  ilO;  work  re- 
sumed, 1902,  110;  mud  face  baked 
with  torches,  110;  headings  meet, 
1904,  110;    south  tunnel  driven  at 


phenomenal  speed,  111  ;  an  amus- 
ing incident.  111.  Lower  Hudson 
Tunnels,  11 1.  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road Hudson  Tunnels,  113;  diffi- 
cult material  to  pierce,  113;  8<rew 
piles  used  to  support  the  tunnel, 
113;  tunnel  lined  with  concrete, 
advantages  of  system,  114;  the 
shields,  interesting  f<»aturefl,  116; 
a  curious  diflieulty,  shield  tends  to 
rise,  116;  quicksands  penetratecl, 
116.  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
East  River  Tunnels,  117;  four 
tunnels  driven,  117;  steel  caissons 
for  shafts  sunk  in  banks,  117; 
shields,  117  ;  segment  erectors,  117  ; 
great  difficulties  in  piercing  quick- 
sands, 118;  clay  blanket  dumped 
on  river  bed,  118  ;  tedious  and  dan- 
gerous work  inside  the  shields,  118. 
Battery  Tunnels,  119;  location, 
119;  frequent  blow-outs,  120;  an 
astonishing  escape   from  drowning, 

120  ;  delicate  operation  of  altering 
the  level  of  the  tubes,  120,  121  ; 
foundation  piles  driven  to  support 
tunnel,  121.  Steinway,  Belmont, 
AND  Harlem  River  Tunnels,  122, 
123. 

Roads,  making,  in  the  Norwegian  moun- 
tains, IIL,  349,  350;  Roman,  L, 
17,  18. 

Roebling,  J.  A.,  builds  Grand  Trunk 
Railway  Bridge  across  Niagara 
gorge,  IIL,  278 ;  builds  Brooklyn 
Bridge,  II. ,  260. 

Rogers,  A.  B.,  L,  270 ;  discovers  pass 
through  Selkirks,  271. 

Rolling  mills,  IIL,  269,  270. 

Rolling  stock — Chicago  freight  subways, 
L,  367;  Hedjaz  Railway,  L,  347, 
348. 

Roman  aqueducts,  I.,  16,  17  ;  LEI.,  177  ; 
bridges,  I.,  18,  19  ;  roads,  I.,  17, 
18  ;   tools  and  screw,  I.,  20. 

Roosevelt,  President  T.,  and  Panama 
Canal,  IL,  140,  141,  149. 

Rope  incline,  Kikuyu  escarpment, 
Uganda  railway,  II.,  58. 

Ropes  used  in  railroad  making,  I.,  27. 

Ropeway  in  the  Andes,  a  Wonderful 
Aerial,  L,  119-127. 

Location,     119;      projection     of, 

121  ;  system  adopted,  121  ;  diffi- 
culties    in    .transporting    material, 

122  ;  transporting  ropes,  123  ;  low 
temperatures,  123,  124 ;  gradients 
of,  124 ;  working  of,  126 ;  auto- 
matic rope  -  gripping  device  for 
carriers,  126 ;  lubrication  of  the 
ropes,  127  ;  value  of  the  cableway, 
127. 

Ross,  A.  M.,  L,  205. 

Rotary  digger.  Price's,  for  tunnelling, 
I  ,  301-.303. 

Rotherhithe  Tunnel,  The,  L,  49-64. 
Need  for  better  cross-river  facilities 
in  East  London,  49  ;  previous 
schemes,  the  Thames  "Timnel,  49  ; 
description  of  Rotherhithe  Tunnel, 
50  ;  large  diameter,  50  ;  open  ap- 
proaches, 51  ;  cut-anil-cover  work, 
52,  53  ;  the  shafts,  54  ;  sinking  the 
shaft  caissons,  54,  55  ;  u.se  of  com- 
pressed air,  56 ;  the  cast-iron  tunnel, 
56 ;  putting  in  the  lining,  57 ; 
compressed  air  used  for  driving,  57  ; 
air-locks  and  their  principles,  58 ; 
a  trial  or  "  pilot "  tunnel  driven 
alu-ad,  58  ;  the  great  shield  for  the 
main  tunnel,  61  ;  starting  the  shield 

[397] 


from  a  shaft,  61  ;  advancing  the 
shield,  61  ;  "  grouting  "  the  lining 
with  cement,  61  ;  rate  of  progress, 
62 ;  a  swond  shield  started,  62 ; 
tunnel  ojKsned,  <KJ ;  a  vi.sit  to  the 
tunnel,  first  improMsjonH,  <>3,  64. 

Rouen  transporter  bridge,  I.,  289. 

Royal    Albert    Bridge  at  Saitash, 
The,  L,  34-40. 

D<»signed  by  I.  K.  Brunei,  34  ; 
need  for  its  erection,  35  ;  facts  and 
figures,  35 ;  foundations  for  the 
piers,  35  ;  sinking  cylinder  for  cen- 
tral pier,  36;  pier  built,  36;  iron 
work  of  the  two  main  spans,  a 
peculiar  form  of  girder,  36,  37 ; 
scheme  for  floating  the  spans,  37  ; 
preparations  made,  37  ;  the  launch, 
38  ;  first  girder  in  position  on  base 
of  piers,  38  ;  general  festivities,  39  ; 
raising  the  girders  and  building  up 
the  piers,  39  ;  details  of  the  bridge, 
39,  40  ;   a  pathetic  incident,  40. 

Rudyord's  Eddystone  lighthouse,  I.,  371. 

Runcorn  transporter  bridge,  I.,  294-297. 

Russell,    John    Scott,    builder   of    Great 
Eastern,  L,  316,  317. 

Russian  Railways  in  Central  Asia^ 
IL,  375-381. 

The  Trans-Caspian  Railway,  375  ; 
Russian  pioneers  in  south-western 
Asia,  375 ;  Russia  determines  to 
build  a  railway,  377  ;  General 
SkobelefT  subdues  the  Turcomans, 
377 ;  railway  l)egun,  377  ;  little 
grading  to  be  done,  377  ;  lack  of 
water,  supplies  brought  by  rail, 
377  ;  encroachment  of  sand,  measures 
to  control  it,  377 ;  oil  fuel  used  for 
engine.^?,  378 ;  rail-head  reaches  Merv, 
379  ;  bridging  the  Oxus — a  curious 
oversight,  379  ;  Samarcand  reached, 
379  ;  a  new  Caspian  terminus,  379  ; 
Russians  push  on  from  Samarcand, 
379 ;  reach  Andizhan  and  Marghi- 
lan,  380  ;  railway  gauge  and  rolling 
stock,  380 ;  natives  as  railway 
mechanics,  381  ;  the  Orenburg- 
Tashkent  line,  381  ;  future  develop- 
ments, 381. 

Russian  workmen,  I.,  73. 

Rust  joint,  I.,  56. 


Sack  block  system  of  constructing  break- 
waters, III.,  76. 

Sacred  fires  of  Surakhany,  II.,  323. 

Saddles  for  suspension  bridge  cables — 
Runcorn  transporter  bridge,  I.,  295  ; 
Brooklyn  Bridge,  IT.,  261 ;  Williams- 
burgh  Bridge,  n.,  264;  Manhattan 
Bridge,  H.,  270. 

Safety  nets — at  Bishop  Rock  lighthouse^ 
L,  382  ;  at  Zambesi  Bridge,  I.,  98. 

Safety  switches  on  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  in  the  Rockies,  I.,  278. 

St.  Lawrence  River,  I.,  205. 

St.  Louis  Bridge,  The,  IL,  163-171. 
The  Mississippi  River,  163,  166; 
an  early  proposal  to  bridge  the 
river  at  St.  Louis,  164 ;  "  ice  gorges," 
164  ;  other  physical  obstacles,  164  ; 
James  B.  Eads's  plans,  164  ;  rival 
scheme  frustrated,  165  ;  details  of 
the  bridge,  165;  work  begun,  166; 
pneumatic  caissons  adopted,  167  ; 
terrific  hurricane,  much  damage 
done,  169 ;  the  steel  arch  super- 
structure, 170;  joining  up,  170; 
the  roadway,  170  ;  completion,  170. 


Sakieh,  II. ,  389. 

Salt  River  irrigation  project,  II.,  98. 

Saltash  Bridge,  see  "  Royal  Albert  Bridge 
at  Saltash,"  I.,  34-40. 

Salving  of  H.M.S.  "Gladiator," 
The,  I.,  41-48. 

H.M.S.  Gladiator  is  sunk,  41  ; 
scheme  to  raise  the  vessel,  42 ; 
salvage  gangs  get  to  work,  43  ; 
vessel  lightened,  43;  lifting  "camels" 
built  and  attached  to  vessel,  43  ; 
vessel  pumped  and  drawn  shore- 
wards,  44  ;  righting  operations,  44  ; 
more  "  camels  "  attached,  45  ;  tri- 
pods affixed  for  hauling  ropes,  45  ; 
divers  stop  leaks,  46  ;  vessel  floats, 
46  ;  starts  for  Portsmouth,  47  ;  is 
safely  docked,  47  ;  a  fine  piece  of 
work  with  a  flat  ending,  48. 

Sand-drifts  on  Trans-Caspian  Railway, 
II.,  377. 

Sand-washer,  mechanical,  III.,  204. 

Savannah,  The,  I.,  315. 

Scherzer  Rolling  Lift  Bridges,  II., 
44-49. 

Schmitt,  F.  E.,  on  "The  Bridges  of  New 
York  City,"  II.,  257. 

Scouts  (warships),  I.,  39.3. 

Screening  machinery,  III.,  170. 

Screw,  Roman,  I.,  20. 

Scrive  boards,  II.,  68. 

Scrubbers  for  producer  gas,  I.,  220,  221. 

Searchlight  at  Eigerwand  station.  III., 
310. 

Seeding  machines,  III.,  293. 

Segment  erectors,  TI.,  117. 

Servo-motors  for  torpedoes,  I.,  435  ;  for 
governing  turbines.  III.,  277. 

Setting  out  a  tunnel,  I.,  231. 

Severn  Tunnel,  The  Story  of  the,  I., 
79-89. 

Dimensions,  80 ;  shafts,  81  ;  in- 
vaded by  Great  Spring,  81 ;  Great 
Spring  checked,  82 ;  gradient  altered, 
82 ;  pump  accident,  83 ;  divers 
employed  to  close  heading  door, 
83,  84;  Great  Spring  walled  out,  84; 
telephones  installed,  85  ;  panic  in 
the  tunnel,  85  ;  sea  invades  tunnel, 
85 ;  methods  of  tunnelling  employed, 
87 ;  tunnelling  completed,  88 ; 
water  pumped  from  tunnel,  89. 

Sewage,  chemical  treatment  and  dis- 
posal of.  III.,  215,  217. 

Sewer  construction.  III.,  219;  diversion 
in  New  York,  II.,  345. 

Sewers,  intercepting.  III.,  211. 

Sewers,  London,  see  "  Wonderful  Drain- 
age System  of  London,"  III.,  209- 
225. 

Sewers,  storm  relief,  III.,  213. 

Shadoof,  IL,  389. 

Shafts— Rotherhi the  Tunnel,  I.,  54 ; 
London  Tube  Railways,  I.,  236, 
237  ;   East  River  Tunnels,  II.,  117. 

Shears  for  cutting  stout  metal,  III., 
271. 

Shield,  tunnellins — Brunei's  for  Thames 
Tunnel,  L,"  185,  186,  187,  190; 
Greathead's,  I.,  228 ;  East  River 
Gas  Tunnel,  II.,  107  ;  lower  Hudson 
River  Tunnels,  II.,  Ill;  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  East  River  Tunnels, 
IL,  116;  Rotherhi  the  Tunnel,  L, 
61 ;  see  "  Timnelling  Shield." 

SHIPS  AND  SHIPBUILDING: 

Ships — see  "  Warships,"  "  Arma- 
ment of  a  Battleship,"  "  Armour 
of  a  Battleship,"  "  Torpedo  Craft, 
the  Development  of,"  "  Submarine 
Boats,"    "  Building    of    the    Train- 


Ferry  Baikal,"  "  Designing  a  Ship," 
"  Development  of  the  Ship." 

Ships — Agimemnon,  see  Index  ;  Baikal, 
L,  65-79,  IIL,  90;  Ermack,  IIL, 
122 ;  Egyptian,  I.,  312 ;  Great 
Eastern,  see  Index  ;  Lusitania,  see 
Index ;  Mabel  Grace,  IIL,  128 ; 
Mauretania,  see  Index  ;  Milwaukee, 
IIL,  126;  Niagara,  see  Index;  oil 
tank,  II. ,  339  ;  ore  carrying,  IIL, 
259  ;  Suevic,  IIL,  127  ;  telegraph, 
IIL,  362  ;  Viking,  L,  313  ;  Vulkan, 
IIL,  124 ;  warships,  see  Index ; 
Wittckind,  IIL,  125. 

Shipbuilding  Feats,  Some  Extra- 
ordinary, m.,  122. 

Shipbuilding  terms  explained — 
"  block  coefficient,"  I.,  352  ;  bulk- 
heads, I.,  355  ;  "  dead  weight,"  I., 
350  ;  displacement,  I.,  350  ;  equiva- 
lent girder,  I.,  353;  "fine"  and 
"  full  "  lines,  I.,  3.52  ;  "  gross  "  and 
"  net  "  tonnage,  I.,  352  ;  "  meta- 
centre  "  and  "  metacentric  height," 
I.,  353  ;  "  propulsive  coefficient,"  L, 
356  ;  "  slip  "  of  propellers,  I.,  357  ; 
"  turret  "  ship,  I.,  354. 

Shipyard,  equipment  of  a  modern,  see 
"  Equipment  of  a  Modem  Ship- 
yard." n.,  65-80. 

"  Shoots,"  the,  L,  80. 

Siberia,  intense  cold  in,  I.,  72;  physical 
features  of,  IIL,  83  ;  rivers  of,  IIL, 
85. 

Signalling,  Railway,  IL,  225-240. 

Early  signals,  225 ;  semaphore 
signals,    226  ;     "  stepped  "    signals, 

226  ;  signal  indicators,  227.  Points, 

227  ;  trailing  and  facing  points, 
227  ;  a  point  lock,  228 ;  action 
described,  228.  Interlocking,  228  ; 
principle  briefly  explained,  229 ; 
lever  locking,  229 ;  explanation,  229, 
230 ;  catch-handle  locking,  230. 
Power  signalling,  230 ;  intro- 
duced by  W^estinghouse,  230  ;  vari- 
ous agents  now  used,  231  ;  electrical 
locking  frames,  231  ;  their  advan- 
tages, 231  ;  return  indications,  232  ; 
low  pressure  pneumatic  system,  232  ; 
automatic  stroke  completion,  232. 
Automatic  signalling,  233  [see 
also  IL,  350,  351)  ;  most  widely 
used  in  the  United  States,  233 ; 
electricity  the  primary  agent,  233  ; 
principle   of    automatic    signalling, 

233,  234  ;    the  use  of   "  overlaps," 

234,  235  ;  the  series  of  operations 
performed  by  a  train  passing  through 
successive  sections,  235  ;  automatic 
brake  application,  235,  236  ;  auto- 
matic signalling  on  steam  railways, 
236  ;  typical  series  of  signal  opera- 
tions traced  through,  237.  Control 
OF  single  lines,  237  ;  the  train 
staff,  and  its  shortcomings,  237, 
238 ;  electric  train  staff  system, 
238  ;  how  a  line  is  Worked  with  it, 
238,  239.  A  system  of  audible 
SIGNALLING,  239  ;  described  in  detail, 
240. 

Singer  building,  New  York,  II. ,  14,  17. 

Sinking  cylinders  for  Saltash  Bridge,  I., 
35,  36. 

Skaguay,  I.,  23. 

Skerry vore  lighthouse,  I.,  374. 

Skewbacks— of  Forth  Bridge,  I.,  329, 
331;  of  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
Bridge,  IIL,  279  ;  of  Niagara  Falls 
and  Clifton  Bridge,  IIL,  283,  284. 

Skobeleff,  General,  II. ,  377. 

[398] 


"  Skull  crackers,"  for  breaking  scrap 
metal,  IIL,  262,  263. 

Slab  chargers,  IIL,  271. 

Slave  trade  and  the  Uganda  railwaj', 
II. ,  50. 

Sliding  ways,  II. ,  76. 

"  Slip  "  of  screws,  I.,  357. 

Sloops  (warships),  I.,  393. 

Sludge  vessels,  IIL,  217,  219. " 

Sluices  —  Assiout  barrage,  II. ,  399; 
Assouan  dam,  II. ,  397,  393;  Delta 
barrage,  IL,  390 ;  Esneh  barrage, 
IL,  405;  Weaver,  L,  164;  Zifta 
barrage,  II. ,  404. 

Smeaton's  Eddystone  lighthouse,  L,  371, 
372. 

Smiles,  Dr.  Samuel,  on  the  Britannia 
Bridge,  L,  152. 

Snow-fences — on  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way, I.,  265  ;  on  Bergen-Kristiania 
Railway,  IIL,  356. 

Snow-Ploughs,  Railway,  11.,  241- 
245 ;  on  Bergen-Kristiania  Rail- 
way, in.,  356;  on  White  Pass 
Railway,  L,  33. 

Snow-screens  and  snow-sheds — on  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway,  L,  280,  281  ; 
on  Central  Pacific  Railway,  IIL, 
136  ;   on  Fell  railway,  ILL.,  305. 

Snowstorm  blocks  work  at  Severn 
Tunnel,  L.  84. 

"Soapy"  Smith,  L,  23. 

Spade,  hydraulic,  L,  327. 

Span  of  telegraph  wire,  very  long,  I.,  199. 

Speed— of  Atlantic  liners, '1862-1907,  L, 
319  ;  of  construction  of  steel  frame 
buildings,  IL,  4,  10 ;  of  construc- 
tion of  Niagara  Falls  and  Clifton 
Bridge,  IIL,  287 ;  of  destrovers, 
L,  422;  of  electric  trains,  IL,"221, 
222 ;  of  racing  motor  cars,  IIL, 
334. 

Sphinx,  I.,  15. 

Spinning  cables  of  suspension  bridges, 
IL,  268-270. 

Spreaders,  mechanical,  II. ,  147. 

Springs,  hot,  in  Simplon  Tunnel,  III., 
158,  159. 

Stability — of  an  aeroplane,  IIL,  9,  11, 
12 ;  of  lighthouses  deperds  on 
weight,  not  adhesion,  I.,  373. 

Stations,  New  York  subway,  TL,  350, 
353,  354. 

Station  tunnels  on  tube  railways,  L,  .300. 

Statue  of  Liberty,  building  the,  IIL, 
250-256. 

Steam  locomotives  of  to-day,  II. ,  193- 
215;  see  "  Locomotives." 

Steam-shovels  on  Panama  Canal  works, 
IL,  146. 

Steam  tillage,  IIL,  289-297. 

Steel-cage  buildings,  II. ,  2. 

Steel-Frame  Buildings,  IL,  1-21. 

Origin  of  the  steel-frame  building, 
1  :  definitions,  2 ;  increase  in  floor 
space  and  value  of  ground,  3  ;  the 
Crystal  Palace  first  steel-cage  build- 
ing, 3 ;  speed  in  construction,  4, 
10 ;  foundations,  6,  14  ;  the  steel 
cage,  6  ;  the  men  who  do  the  work, 
6  ;  walls  and  floors,  8  ;  superiority 
of  the  steel- frame  building  in  resist- 
ing earthquake  shocks,  11  ;  pro- 
tection of  steel  against  fire  and 
corrosion,  12,  13  ;  wind  -  bracing, 
13,  14  ;  elevated  power  station,  15  ; 
suspended  stories  in  a  hotel,  15 ; 
movable  columns  and  girders,  16; 
lofty  towers — the  Montgomery  Ward 
building,  16;  Manhattan  Life  build- 
ing, 16  ;    Singer  tower,  17  ;    Metro- 


politaii  Life  Assurance  building, 
17,  19  ;  loftier  structures  to  come, 
20 ;  the  value  of  the  high-speed 
elevator,  20. 

Steel-making — Bessemer  ])rocess,  HI,, 
264  ;   open-hearth  process,  265. 

Steel  skeleton  buildings,  II.,  2. 

Stem  bar  of  a  ship,  II.,  73. 

Stephenson,  George,  adopts  narrow 
gauge  for  his  railways,  I.,  109 ; 
surveys  route  of  North  Wales  rail- 
way, 147  ;  makes  <-aiIway  track 
across  Chat  Moss,  368,  3(5!). 

Stephenson,  Robert,  builds  Britannia 
and  Conway  tubular  bridges,  I., 
147-152;  designs  Victoria  tubular 
bridge,  206;  condemns  Suez  Canal 
scheme,  244. 

Stem  frame  of  a  ship,  II.,  73. 

Stevenson,  Alan,  engineer  of  the  Skerry- 
vore  lighthouse,  I.,  374. 

Stevenson,  D.  and  T.,  engineers  of  Dhu 
Heartach  lighthouse,  I.,  374. 

Stonehenge,  I.,  6,  13,  14. 

Stoney  Sluices,  11.,  397.  398. 

Strathcona,  Lord,  drives  last  spike  of 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  I.,  282. 

Stresses  in  a  beam,  I.,  102-104  ;  II.,  422. 

Strub  rack  for  mountain  railways.  III., 
307. 

Stupidity  of  Russian  officials,  I.,  68. 

Submarine  Boats,  I.,  427-432. 

Hull  of  a  submarine,  427  ;  trim- 
ming, ballast,  and  gasolene  tanks, 
428  ;  conning  tower,  430 ;  means 
of    propulsion,     430 ;      ventilation, 

430  ;    armament,  431  ;    submersion, 

431  ;  the  periscope,  431  ;  "  sub- 
mersibles,"  432 ;  recent  improve- 
ments, 432 ;  also  I.,  396 ;  III., 
123,  124. 

Submarine  cables,  see  "  Early  Atlantic 
Cables,"  II.,  277-294,  355-374;  and 
"  Cables,  Submarine,  The  Construc- 
tion and  Laying  of,"  III.,  357  foil. 

Subway,  New  York,  see  "  New  York 
Subwav,"  IL,  342-354. 

Sudds,  II. ,  393,  394. 

Suez  Canal,  The,  L,  241-256. 

Early  canals  between  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Mediterranean,  241  ; 
Napoleon's  scheme  for  making  one, 
242 ;  the  overland  route,  242 ; 
Lesseps'  scheme  for  a  canal,  242  ; 
he  surveys  the  route,  243  ;  lakes 
available  for  part  of  canal,  243  ; 
opposition  to  the  scheme,  243 ; 
Khedive  grants  permission,  244 ; 
British  apathy,  244  ;    work  begun, 

244  ;  building  Port  Said,  245  ;  cut- 
ting the  canal,  245  ;  labour  troubles, 

245  ;  great  dredgers  employed,  246  ; 
the  "  balayeur,'  247  ;  amount  of 
material  removed,  247  ;  canal  com- 
pleted, 248 ;  cost,  248 ;  need  for 
improvements,  248 ;  lighting  the 
canal  by  electricity,  249 ;  bank 
protection,  249 ;  widening  opera- 
tions, 250  ;  a  rock-breaking  dredger, 
251  ;  "  gares  "  or  sidings,  251  ; 
how  stranded  or  sunken  vessels  are 
dealt  with,  251,  252 ;  blasting  a 
wreck,  252 ;  the  block  system  of 
controlling  traffic,  253 ;  rules  and 
regulatio/18,  253 ;  traversing  the 
canal,  254  ;  further  improvements, 
255  ;  traffic  statistics,  255  ;  finan- 
cial position  of  the  company,  256. 

Superheater,  Schmidt's,  II.,  256. 
Superheating     steam,     its     ellect     and 
economy,  11.,  256. 


Superstition  of  African  natives,  I.,  IfX). 

Surveying  for  Borgon-Kristiania  Rail- 
way, III.,  349 ;  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  I.,  258,  270,  271,  272 ; 
Chicago  freight  subways,  I.,  363 ; 
Florida  East  Coast  Extension  Rail- 
way, I.,  129,  130  ;  Gunnison  canvon, 
n.,  95,  97  ;  Jungfrau  Railway,  III., 
307  ;  Simplon  Tunnel,  III.,  156 ; 
Union  Pacific  Railway,  III.,  131. 

Suspension  bridges,  principles,  I.,  106  ; 
Brooklyn,  IL.  2(K),  261  ;  Man- 
hattan, II. ,  266-270  ;  Menai  Straits, 
I.,  142-145;  Niagara  Falls  and 
Clifton,  III.,  278, 282-287;  Williams- 
burgh,  IL.  261-266. 

Swing  aqueduct,  Barton,  I.,  167. 

Swing  bridges  on  Manchester  Ship  Canal, 
L,  165. 

Switches,  safety,  on  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  L,  278. 

Syphons  in  aqueducts,  III.,  179,  187  ; 
Severn,  Birmingham  aqueduct,  191  ; 
Teme,  Birmingham  aqueduct,  191. 


Taboot,  n.,  389. 

Tabor,  E.  H.,  on  "  The  Rothorhithe 
Tunnel,"  L,  49-64. 

Tanks,  experimental,  for  testing  ship 
models,  I.,  356. 

Tanks,  irrigation,  in  India,  III.,  244. 

Tartar,  H.5I.S.,  I.,  423. 

Tebuk,  I.,  345. 

Telegraph,  African  Transcontinental,  see 
"  African  Transcontinental  Tele- 
graph," I.,  193-204. 

Telegraph  poles — iron.  I.,  199;  erecting, 
L,  199  ;  damaged  by  wild  animals 
and  vegetation,  200 ;  living,  on 
Uganda  railway,  II. ,  63. 

Telegraph  ships.  lit.,  362. 

Telephone  installation  in  Severn  Tunnel, 
I.,  85  ;   value  of,  85. 

Telford,  Thomas,  his  bridge  at  Glouces- 
ter, I.,  79  ;  makes  road  from 
Shrewsbury  to  Holyhead,  142 ; 
bridges  the  Menai  Straits,  142-146. 

Teredo  navalis,  or  wood-boring  worm, 
Brunei's  Thames  Tunnel  shield  based 
upon  its  boring  action,  I.,  185. 

Thames  Tunnel,  The,  L,  181-192. 

An  extraordinary  engineering  feat, 

181  ;  early  schemes  for  tunnelling 
the  Thames,  182 ;  Brunei's  pro- 
posal,  182 ;    dimensions  of   tunnel, 

182  ;  tunnel  company  formed,  182  ; 
sinking  first  shaft  caisson,  183 ; 
underpinning  the  caisson.  185  ;  pro- 
vision for  drainage,  185  ;  the  great 
shield,  185  ;  method  of  excavation, 
186 ;  advancing  the  shield,  186 ; 
a  mistaken  policy,  188  ;  first  irrup- 
tion of  the  river,  189  ;  the  tunnel 
cleared,  189  ;  second  irruption,  189  ; 
funds  exhausted,  190  ;  Government 
advances  money,  190 ;  new  shield 
installed.  190;  further  inroads  of 
water,  191  ;   a  curious  subsidence  of 

f;round,  191  ;  communication  estab- 
ished,  Brunei  knighted,  191  ;  tunnel 
opened,  192. 

Thermal  efficiencies  of  various  types  of 
engine,  I.,  226. 

lliompson,  A.  Beeby,  on  "  Engineering 
in  the  World's  Oil  Fields,"  IL,  321. 

Tliompson  ladder  excavator  for  tunnel- 
ling, L,  301. 

Thomson,  Professor  William  (Lord  Kel- 
vin), IL,  280 ;  his  reflecting  galva- 

[399] 


nometer,  293,  294  :  -t.uts  with  aeo- 
ond  Atlantic  cabl'  |>edition, 

355;     counsels    ].  i  «,    357; 

his     appreciation     uf     .Sir     CharlM 
Bricht  8     work.     3(54  ;      representa 
*■'•'■       ''■  '    ^iph    Company    on 
:i68  ;   and  on  1866 

Three- wire  system  of  transmitting  electric 
current.  III.,  227. 

'Hireshing  machines.  III.,  296. 

'I'hwaite,  Ikmjamin  Howarth,  discovers 
that  blast  furnace  gas  is  suitable 
for  use  in  gas  ongint-s,  I.,  219  ;  in- 
vents scrubbers  to  clean  the  gas, 
220 ;  reaps  no  profit  from  his  in- 
ventions, 226. 

Tidal  wave  floods  Severn  Tunnel,  L,  86. 

Timber  docks,  IL,  185. 

Time-table  of  Trans-Caspian  Railway, 
IL,  381. 

Titan  cranes.  I.,  176  ;   IIL,  69. 

Toggles,  adjustment,  for  bridge  canti- 
levers, IIL,  281,  283,  284. 

Tonnage,  gross  and  net,  of  ships,  L,  352. 

Tools,  ancient,  I.,  19,  20 ;  a  colossal 
tool,  IL,  382-384. 

Torpedoes,  L,  433-441. 

General    description,    43o  ,     ., 

433  ;  the  "  head,"  434  ;  air-cham- 
ber, 435  ;  balance  chamljor,  435  ; 
engine  chamber,  436 ;  buoyancy 
chamber,  436  ;  gyroscope  for  steer- 
ing, 436  ;  tail  section,  437  ;  range 
increased  by  air  heater,  437  ;  speed, 
437  ;  Bliss  -  Ijeavitt  torpedo,  437  ; 
firing  the  torpedo,  437.  Control- 
lable torpedoes,  438 ;  Brennan  tor- 
pedo, 438 ;  Sims-Edison  torpedo, 
438 ;  wireless  steered,  439 ;  crew- 
less  submarine  boats,  439,  440 ; 
torpedo  nets,  440 ;  also  spar  tor- 
pedo, 418. 

Torpedo  Craft,  The  Development 
of,  L,  418-425. 

Early  types.  418  ;  torpedo  gun- 
boats. 419 ;  destroyers.  419  ;  the 
Turbinia,  422 ;  turbine  driven  de- 
stroyers, 422 ;  the  Tartar  class  of 
destroyer.  4^ ;  description  of  a 
destroyer.  424 ;  modern  torpedo 
boats,  424 ;  oil  fuel,  425 ;  motor- 
driven  craft,  425  ;   also  393. 

Tower  subway,  I.,  228. 

Towers  of  Famatina  cableway,  I..  122 ; 
of  Forth  Bridge.  323,  331.  332. 

Track-throwers,  mechanical.  IL.  147. 

Traffic  on  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway,  II.,  158. 

Train-ferry  Angara,  I.,  78. 

Train-ferry  Baikal,  L,  65-78. 

Transformers,  electric  current.  lU.,  227. 

Transmission  lines  for  electric  power — 
Electric  Development  Company's, 
IL.  310  ;  Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany's, .303 ;  Ontario  Power  Com- 
pany's. .306. 

Transportation  Canalsof  the  United 
States,  III.,  163-176. 

The  value  of  inland  waterways, 
163;  statistics  of  United  States 
canals,  163 ;  canals  temporarily 
crushed  by  railroad  comix-tition, 
164  ;  great  projects  now  afoot  for 
bringing  canal  system  up  to  date, 

164,  165  ;  past  history  of  the  canals, 

165.  Old  Erie  Canal,  165;  begun 
in  1777,  completed  1825,  165  ;  wane 
of  the  canal's  importance,  167 ; 
electric  towage  tried,  167.  New 
Erie  Canal,  168  ;  new  system  of 
pneumatic  locks  to  be  used,   168 ; 


pneumatic  lock  described,  168  ;  ex- 
cavators and  dredgers  for  the  new 
canal  works,  169  ;  "  geysers,"  169  ; 
pile-driving,  170 ;  screening,  crush- 
ing, and  washing  plants,  170. 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal,  170 ; 
early  history,  170 ;  canal  opened 
in  1855,  170 ;  larger  channel  and 
locks  soon  required,  170  ;  Weitzel 
and  Poe  locks,  171  ;  facts  about  the 
canal,  172  ;  at  present  the  most  im- 
portant canal  in  the  United  States, 
172.  Chicago  Drainage  Canal, 
172  ;  its  double  jjurpose,  172  ;  won- 
derful machinery  used  for  excava- 
tion, 173  ;  "  channellers  "  and 
dredges,  173,  174;  power-houses 
on  the  canal,  174.  Other  Canals  : 
Illinois  and  Michigan,  174  ;  Lake 
Borgne  Canal,  opened  1901,  174  ; 
proposed  Florida  Canal,  175  ;  Albe- 
marle and  Chesapeake  Canal,  175  ; 
Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal, 
175  ;  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  Canals, 
175,  176;  activity  in  the  state  of 
Ohio,  176 ;  rivers  canalized  b\'  means 
of  movable  dams,  176 ;  principle 
of  the  needle  dam,  176. 

Transporter  Bridges,  I.,  287-299. 

Development  of  bridges,  287  ; 
the  transporter  bridge,  289 ;  a 
primitive  transporter  bridge,  289 ; 
Portugaleti  Bridge,  289 ;  Rouen 
transporter,  289 ;  Newport  trans- 
porter, 291,  292;  Nantes  trans- 
porter, 292 ;  Duluth  transporter, 
292,  294 ;  Runcorn  transporter, 
294  -  297  —  sinking  cylinders  for 
foundations  of  towers,  294 ;  the 
suspension  cables,  295  ;  method  of 
attachment  to  anchorage,  295  ;  the 
stiffening  girders,  trolley,  and  car, 
297  ;  the  trolley  motors,  297  ;  table 
of  chief  transporter  bridges,  297. 
Design,  297  ;  superstructure,  298  ; 
different  construction  and  arrange- 
ments of  cables,  298,  299  ;  how  the 
cables  are  put  in  position,  298  ;  a 
curious  effect  of  wind  on  cables, 
299  ;   car  propulsion,  299. 

Trans-Siberian  Railway,  The,  HI., 
81-95. 

Early  schemes  for  a  railway  across 
Asia,  81  ;  a  horse  tramway  sug- 
gested, 81  ;  imperial  order  to  com- 
mence building  a  line  issued  in  1891, 
82 ;  first  sod  turned  at  Vladivostok 
in  1892,  82 ;  the  Russian  peasant 
slothful  but  persevering,  82  ;  popu- 
lation and  physical  features  of 
Siberia,  83  ;  route  of  the  railway, 
with  distances,  83  ;  work  divided 
into  sections,  83 ;  surveying  the 
route,  83 ;  specifications  for  con- 
struction, 83  ;  rails,  embankment, 
ballast,  gradients,  and  curves,  84  ; 
ofhcial  corruption  and  scamped 
work,  84  ;  only  Russians  employed, 
84 ;  sections  of  the  railway,  85 ; 
country  easy  from  Urals  to  Lake 
Baikal,  85 ;  the  great  rivers  of 
Central  Siberia,  85 ;  thirty  miles 
of  bridges  required,  85  ;  the  Yenisei 
Bridge,  85  ;  track  laid  at  average 
of  more  than  one  mile  a  day,  86; 
Siberian  trains,  87  ;  express  de  luxe, 
87  ;  very  primitive  accommodation 
for  emigrants,  87  ;  the  railway  sta- 
tions, 87;  Omsk,  87;  the  Obi 
Bridge,  87  ;  the  "  Taiga,"  87  ;  why 
the  railway  did  not  pass   through 


Tomsk,  88 ;  the  penalties  of  in- 
dependence, 88  ;  Krasnoiarsk,  89  ; 
Yenisei  Bridge,  89  ;  Lake  Baikal, 
89 ;  temporary  methods  of  main- 
taining traffic  across  the  lake,  89  ; 
sledges  used  in  winter,  90  ;  dangers 
of  sledging,  a  gruesome  incident, 
90  ;  the  Baikal  and  Angara  train- 
ferries,  90 ;  trans-Baikal  section, 
route  modified,  90 ;  crossing  the 
Yablonoi  Mountains,  91  ;  Man- 
churian  Railway,  91 ;  "  East  Chinese 
section,"  to  Vladivostok,  91 ;  branch 
line  from  Harbin  to  Port  Arthur, 
92  ;  subsequently  captured  by  Jap- 
anese, 92 ;  Ussuri  Railway  from 
Vladivostok  to  Khabarovsk,  92 ; 
the  Baikal  Ring  Railway  round 
south  end  of  lake — great  difficulties 
to  be  overcome,  92 ;  much  tunnel- 
ling and  blasting  required,  93 ; 
Italian  workmen  imported,  93 ; 
work  let  to  contractors,  93  ;  care- 
less workmen  and  frequent  acci- 
dents, 93 ;  heavy  rails  used  for 
Baikal  section,  93  ;  the  railway  an 
important  factor  in  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  94 ;  the  railway 
to-day,  94  ;  mail  traffic  to  the  Far 
East,  94  ;  train  robbers,  94  ;  future 
of  the  railway,  94,  95. 

"  Travellers  "  for  bridge  erection — Black- 
well's  Island  Bridge,  II.,  272; 
Niagara  Arch  Bridges,  III.,  282,  284. 

Traverse  lines,  in  tunnel  surveying,  I., 
231. 

Trial  trip  of  a  destroyer,  I.,  395,  396  ; 
of  a  ship,  IL,  80. 

Trusses,  bridge—"  king,"  I.,  105  ;  lat- 
tice, I.,  105  ;  "  queen,"  I.,  105  ; 
timber,  in  New  York  subway,  II., 
347  ;  Warren,  I.,  105. 

Tube  Railways  of  London,  The, 
L,  227-240,  300-311. 

Need  for  relieving  congestion  in 
London  streets,  227  ;  Barlow's  pro- 
posed "  omnibus  "  tunnels,  227  ; 
the  Tower  subway,  228  ;  City  and 
South  London  Railway,  229.  Lon- 
don Tube  Railways,  229 ;  approxi- 
mate length  in  miles,  229  ;  gauge, 
diameter  of  train  timnels,  229,  230. 
Mathematics  of  tunnelling,  230. 
Setting  out  a  tunnel,  231  ; 
"  traverse  "  lines  run  over  the  sur- 
face, 231  ;  careful  measurement  with 
steel  tape,  231  ;  the  plan,  231  ; 
transferring  surface  lines  below 
ground,  231,  232.  Guiding  shields, 
232;  on  the  straight,  232,  233; 
steering  round  a  curve,  233  ;  pro- 
portionally divided  guide  rods,  233  ; 
"offsets,"  233,  234:  setting  out 
tangents,  234 ;  vertical  steering, 
234,  236.  Shaft  sinking,  236 : 
diameters  of  shafts,  236 ;  the 
"  underpinning  "  method,  236  ;  use 
of  a  cutting  edge,  shaft  lining  sunk 
by  its  own  weight,  236 ;  shield 
method  of  sinking,  its  success,  237. 
Tunnelling  :  various  methods  em- 
pIo3'ed  under  different  conditions, 
238 :  the  London  clay  an  ideal 
material  to  tunnel  through,  238 ; 
the  Greathead  shield,  its  various 
parts,  and  how  it  is  used,  239,  240  ; 
station  tunnels,  300 ;  details  of, 
300,  301.  The  Rotary  Digger, 
301  ^  two  types  of  mechanical  ex- 
cavators tried,  301  ;  Price's  rotary 
digger,   first   tjrpe,   301  ;    improved 

[400] 


type,  301  ;  the  digger's  efficiency, 
302 ;  gradual  increase  in  working 
speed,  302  ;  Greathead  and  rotary 
shields  compared,  303.  Tunnel- 
ling through  water  -  beaeino 
STRATA,  303  ;  compressed  air  used 
to  exclude  water,  303  ;  its  adoption 
first  suggested  by  a  British  admiral, 
303  ;  the  air  lock,  its  principle  and 
construction,  304  ;  passing  through 
an  air  lock,  305  ;  shaft  sinking  and 
tunnelling  with  compressed  air  not 
equally  simple,  305  ;  a  difficulty  in 
tunnelling  due  to  differences  of  pres- 
sure, 306.  Circumventing  diffi- 
culties, 306  ;  Greathead's  "  as- 
sisted shield "  method  for  loose 
ground,  306 ;  Dalrymple  Hay's 
"  clay  pocket  "  system,  its  success, 
307  ;  a  blow-out  and  its  curious 
consequences,  308.  Erecting  iron 
TUNNEL  lining,  308 ;  placing  a 
segment,  309  ;  grouting  a  ring  with 
cement,  309.     Methods  of  getting 

RID  OF  water  from  TUNNELS  :  USUal 

course  to  provide  a  small  drainage 
tunnel  as  dump,  309  ;  borehole  into 
chalk  tri  >d  successfully,  310.  Gra- 
dients. 310  ;  "  dipping  "  gradients 
used  where  possible,  310,  311  ;  sta- 
tions situated  at  summits,  311  ; 
maximum  acceleration  obtained  and 
minimum  braking  required,  311  ; 
various  relative  positions  of  two 
running  tunnels,  311;  steepest 
gradients,  311. 

Tubes — for  St.  Louis  Bridge  arches,  II., 
170 ;  for  Forth  Bridge  members, 
L,  331. 

Tunnel  for  gas  mains,  East  River,  II., 
106,  107. 

TUNNELLING: 

Ancient,  I.,  19  ;  baking  mud  at 
working  face,  11.,  110 ;  correcting 
line  after  construction,  II.,  114, 
120,  121  ;  draining,  I.,  309  ;  drills, 
see  "  Drill,  Rock  Boring  ;  "  lining, 
I.,  308  ;  mathematics  of,  I.,  230  ; 
methods  of  in  Alpine  tunnels,  III., 
153,  155,  156;  pilot,  L,  58;  IL, 
109  ;  quicksand,  11.,  117  ;  setting- 
out,  L,  231,  232;  shield— Thames 
Tunnel,  L,  57  ;  Greathead,  I.,  228, 
239,  240,  303  ;  steering,  I.,  232- 
236 ;  speed — increase  shown  by  suc- 
cessive Alpine  tunnels,  m.,  153 ; 
phenomenal,  in  Hudson  River  Tun- 
nel, IL,  110;  winter  work,  IIL,  352, 
355. 

TUNNELS,  RAILWAY  AND  ROAD: 
Arlberg,  III.,  152,  153  ;  Battery, 
New  York,  IL,  119-121  ;  Black- 
wall,  L,  182  ;  Central  Pacific  Rail- 
way, IIL,  137  ;  Chicago  subways, 
L,'363,  364;  GravehaK  IIL,  349, 
354  ;  Hudson  River,  first,  II.,  105, 
109-111;  Jungfrau  railway,  IIL, 
307,  310  ;  Loetschberg,  TIL,  162 ; 
London  tube,  see  "  Tube  Railways 
of  London  ;  "  lower  Hudson,  II., 
Ill,  112;  New  York  River,  see 
"  River  Tunnels  of  New  York  City," 
II.,  102-123  ;  Pennsvlvania  rail- 
ways, IL,  113-118;  "Rotherhithe, 
see  "Rotherhithe  Tunnel,"  L,  49- 
64;  St.  Gothard,  IIL,  151,  152; 
Severn,  L,  79-89  ;  Steinwav,  II. , 
122;  Tauern,  IIL,  162;  Tliames, 
I.,  49,  see  ''  Thames  Tunnel,"  I., 
181-192;  Union  Pacific  Railwav, 
IIL,  135. 


TUNNELS,  WATER: 

Croton  aqueduct,  II.,  105  ;  Cyn- 
ynion,  Liverpool  aqueduct,  III., 
182  ;  Dolau,  Binnin^liain  aqueduct, 
III.,  lUl  ;  Electrical  Development 
Company's,  II.,  308,  30'J ;  Fool, 
Birnungham  aqueduct.  III.,  191  ; 
Gunnison,  H.,  95,  97,  98  ;  Hirnant, 
Liverpool  aqueduct.  III.,  18'2 ; 
Knighton,  Birmingham  aquedu<;t, 
m.,  191  ;  Llauforda,  Liverpool 
aqueduct,  III.,  182  ;  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company's,  II.,  301  ;  Periyar, 
III.,  245  ;  Thirlmere  aqueduct.  III., 
183. 

Turbines,  steam — advantages  of,  II., 
36  ;  Curtis,  II.,  36  ;  combined  with 
piston  engines  on  ships,  II.,  40,  41 ; 
Parsons,  II.,  36-38 ;  III.,  231  ; 
Rateau,  II.,  36  ;   Zoelly,  II.,  36. 

Turbines,  water,  II.,  300,  302,  304,  306. 

Turbinia,  I.,  422. 

Twelvetroos,  W.  Noble,  on  "  Steel-Frame 
Buildings,"  11.,  1-21  ;  on  "  Rein- 
forced Concrete  Construction,"  II., 
418-432;  on  "The  Story  of  the 
Lighthouse,"  I.,  370-384. 

Tyres,  motor  car,  III.,  327. 


U 
Uganda  Railway,  The,  II.,  50-64. 

The  title  a  misnomer,  50  ;  first 
suggestion  for  the  line,  50  ;  decision 
to  connect  Victoria  Nyanza  with 
Mombasa,  51  ;  construction  advo- 
cated by  prominent  statesmen,  51  ; 
preliminary  survey  made,  53  ;  line 
commenced  in  1895,  53  ;  Salisbury 
Bridge,  53  ;  gauge  of  line  one  metre, 

64  ;  first  section  to  Nairobi  de- 
scribed, 54 ;  Nairobi,  its  quick 
growth,  54 ;  difficult  construction 
in  hills  west  of  Nairobi,  54  ;  Indian 
coolies  imported,  55  ;  Uganda  rail- 
way an  extraordinary  feat  of  engin- 
eering, 55  ;  great  elevation  attained, 

65  ;   adventures  with  lions  at  Tsavo, 

66  ;  lions  cause  the  shifting  of  the 
construction  camp,  56  ;  fatal  care- 
lessness, 67  ;  a  humorous  incident, 
67 ;  an  extraordinary  notice,  57, 
68 ;  the  Kikuyu  escarpment  and 
the  Mau  Valley,  58  ;  tremendous 
gradients,  58  ;  much  bridging  needed, 
59 ;  construction  delays,  59 ;  ma- 
rauding natives  and  measures  to 
outwit  them,  59,  61  ;  locomotives, 
■water  supply,  and  rolling  stock,  62  ; 
"  wash-outs,"  63  ;  living  telegraph 
poles,  63  ;  the  railway  a  cretlit  to  all 
concerned,  63,  64 ;  table  of  distances, 
64. 

Uncompahgre  irrigation  project,  11., 
95-98. 

Underground  Freight  Railways  of 
Chicago,  The,  L,  359-3()7. 

An  underground  distribution  sys- 
tem needed,  300  ;  what  the  system 
has  effected,  360 ;  constructional 
difficulties,  361  ;  work  done  quietly, 
362  ;  "  telephone  "  tunnels,  362  ; 
surveying  the  streets,  363  ;  build- 
ing the  subways,  364 ;  removing 
excavated  material,  305 ;  direct 
connection  with  warehouses,  365 ; 
carrying  the  mails,  365  ;  extent  of 
subways  and  equipment,  367. 

Underpinning — churches,  see  "Great  Un- 
derpinning Achievements,"  III., 
312 ;  shafts  of  Thames  Tunnel,  I., 


185 ;  shafts  of  tube  railways,  I.,  236 ; 
skyscraper,  II.,  348. 
United    States,    irrigation    in    the,    see 
"  Irrigation    Work    in    tlin    United 
States,"  IL,  81-102. 


Vacuum  brake,  II.,  246-248. 

Valve  gears— Joy,  II.,  251  ;  Stephenson, 
245  ;    Walschaort,  256. 

Valves,  automatic,  in  aqueduct  pipe 
lines.  III.,  187,  188. 

Van  Home,  Sir  Williiim,  L,  268. 

Ventilation,  tunnel — Arlberg,  III.,  154  ; 
St.  Gothard,  153  ;  Simplon,  156,  UK). 

Viaducts  of  Florida  East  Coast  Exten- 
sion Railway,  I.,  133. 

Victoria  Bridge,  The  Great,  I.,  205- 
214. 

The  St.  Lawrence  a  great  obstacle 
to  intercommunication,  205  ;  A.  M. 
Ross  draws  out  plans,  206  ;  Robert 
Stephenson  visits  Canada  to  examine 
site,  206  ;  ice  "  shovings,"  206  ; 
work  begins,  207  ;  hygienic  diffi- 
culties, 208 ;  dams  carried  away 
by  ice,  208  ;  financial  troubles,  209  ; 
preparations  for  building  the  tubes, 
210 ;  careful  manufacture,  210  ; 
the  end  in  sight,  210 ;  working 
against  time,  210  ;  disaster  threat- 
ened, 211  ;  tube  completed  just  in 
time,  211  ;  a  description  of  the 
operations,  212  ;  painting  the  tubes, 
212  ;  bridge  opened,  213  ;  a  grace- 
ful act,  214. 

Victoria,  Vancouver  Island,  I.,  285. 

Victoria  Falls  described,  I.,  90,  92  ;  II., 
154 ;  see  "  Zambesi  Bridge,  The 
Great,"  L,  90-101. 

Viking  ship,  L,  313. 

Voisin  biplane.  III.,  21,  23. 

W 

Walker,  T.  A.,  contractor  for  Severn 
Tunnel,  I.,  81,  84,  88,  89  ;  con- 
tractor for  the  Manchester  Ship 
Canal,  I.,  157. 

Warrior,  the,  I.,  399. 

Watts,  Sir  Philip,  I.,  390. 

Warships,  L,  385-396. 

The  BATTLESHIP,  385  ;  defensive 
qualities,  385  ;  ordnance  v.  armour, 
386  ;  magazines,  386  ;  new  battle- 
ships, 388;  H.M.S.  DreadnouglU, 
388  ;  the  DreadnouglU' s  guns,  388  ; 
penetrative  power  of  12-inch  gun, 
390;  speed  of  battleships,  390; 
advantages  of  turbine  machinery, 
390  ;  cost  of  warships,  390.  Pro- 
tected cruisers,  391.  Armoured 
cruisers,  391.  Scouts,  393.  Sloops 
and  GUNBOATS,  393.  .Torpedo  craft, 
393  ;  fast  destroyers,  395  ;  a  de- 
stroyer's trials,  395.  Submarine 
boats,  396. 

Warship  of  the  Future,  The,  L,  453- 
456. 

Warship,  salving  a,  see  "falving  of  the 
Gladiator,"  I,  41-48. 

Washington,  (Jeorge,  and  the  canals  of 
the  United  States,  III.,  163,  165. 

Water-jet  for  pile-driving,  II.,  121. 

Water- Power  Stations  of  Niagara 
Falls,  The,  IL,  295-311. 

Niagara  River  and  Falls,  295 ; 
physical  features  of  the  river,  296  ; 
and  falls,  21>6 ;  early  liistory  of 
power      development,      298.       Hy- 

[401] 


INO  (JoMPASY  :  formed  in  1877, 
299 ;  hydro-oloctric  installation, 
18H1,  299;  power  station  No.  2, 
1895,  303  ;  power  station  No.  3, 
1903,  303;  description  of  .stations, 
304.  PRINCIPLKS  of  a  hydraulic 
power  station,  290,  3tXJ.  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company,  300;  in- 
take, 300  ;  wheel  pit  and  penstocks, 
301  ;  generators  and  automatic 
governors,  301  ;  turbin'^s  and  gener- 
ators, 302  ;  transformers,  302  ;  dis- 
tribution of  current,  303.  Canadian 
Company,  303 ;  controlled  by  Ni- 
agara Falls  Power  Company,  303  ; 
the  plant,  303.  Ontario  Power 
(Company,  305 ;  huge  conduits, 
6,300  feet  long,  306 ;  the  intake, 
306 ;  power  station,  306 ;  dis- 
tributing station  and  transmission 
linos,  306,  307.  Electrical  De- 
velopment Company,  307 ;  two 
bold  and  original  conceptions,  308  ; 
wonderful  engineering  at  the  intake, 
308  ;  wheel  pit  and  turbines,  308  ; 
discharge  tunnel  emptying  liehind 
the  falls,  309  ;  a  remarkable  ex- 
perience for  visitors,  309 ;  power 
house,  309  ;  transmission  line,  310  ; 
are  the  Falls  imperilled  ?  310 ; 
industries  at  Niagara  Fall*,  310 ; 
wonderful  activity,  311. 

Water  Supply  of  London,  see  "  How 
London  gets  its  Water,"  III.,  193- 
208. 

Water  Supply  of  New  York  City, 
The,  IlL,  97-112. 

Now  York's  demand  for  water, 
97  ;  growth  of  population,  97  ;  first 
Croton  River  project,  98  ;  the  old 
Croton  dam,  98  ;  first  Croton  aque- 
duct, 98  ;  second  pipe  line  laid  to 
increase  supply,  99  ;  fresh  schemes, 
99 ;  Board  of  Aqueduct  Commis- 
sioners formed,  99 ;  New  Croton 
Sroject,  99 ;  the  aqueduct,  100 ; 
few  Croton  dam,  101  ;  a  probable 
catastrophe  avoided,  101  ;  huge 
dimensions  of  the  dam,  101;  material 
excavated,  101  ;  Cross  River  dam, 
102  ;  present  daily  consumption  of 
water  in  New  York,  103  ;  further 
supply  called  for,  103 ;  Catskill 
Mountains  selected  as  gathering 
ground,  103 ;  tenders  called  for, 
104  ;  the  Ashokan  reservoir,  104  ; 
central  weir  and  dikes,  105 ;  the 
Olive  Bridge  dam,  105,  106 ;  esti- 
mates of  cost  of  scheme,  106 ; 
features  of  the  dam,  106  ;  expansion 
and  contraction  joints,  106,  107 ; 
the  reservoir  basin,  107  ;  Catskill 
aqueduct,  its  course  to  Staten 
Island,  108,  109  ;  a  colossal  enter- 
prise, 109  ;  facts  and  figures,  109  ; 
exploratory  work,  llO;  twenty- 
five  miles  of  trial  borings,  110; 
list  of  sj^phons.  111  ;  the  Hudson 
River  a  serious  obstacle.  111  ;  trial 
boring  1,030  feet  deep  does  not 
reach  sound  rock.  111  ;  provision 
for  future  increase  in  supply.  111, 
112. 

W^ater-tight  compartments,  I.,  390, 

Water  towers — Lake  Vymwy,  HL,  181  ; 
Norton,  181. 

Watt,  James,  improves  steam  engines, 
nL,  195. 

Waves— force  of,  L,  380,  384;  III., 
65,  67,  72,  74  ;  nature  of.  III.,  65. 


Wax  experimental  models  of  ships,  I.,  356. 

Weaver  sluices,  I.,  160,  164. 

Webster,  John  J.,  on  "  Transporter 
Bridges,"  I.,  287-299. 

Weirs— Bari  Doab  Canal,  III.,  240; 
Chenab  River,  238  ;  Lake  Fife,  246 ; 
shutters,  238. 

Wellington,  Duke  of,  supports  the 
Thames  Tunnel  scheme,  I.,  190. 

Wells — petroleum,  see  "  Oil-Fields,  Engi- 
neering in  the  World's,"  II.,  321-341 ; 
water,  see  "  Artesian  Wells,  and  How 
they  are  Bored,"  III.,  335-346; 
wells  in  Kent.  III.,  196. 

Westinghouse  air  brake,  II.,  248-251. 

Wetterhorn  Electric  Aerial  Rail- 
way, The,  II.,  189-192. 

Wheeler,  Albert  G.,  I.,  362,  367. 

White  Horse  Rapids,  I.,  28,  29. 

White  Pass  and  Yukon  Rp.ilway,  see 
"  Railway  of  the  Far  North,"  I., 
21-33. 

Williams,  Archibald,  on  "  Ancient  En- 
gineering," I.,  5-20;  "The  Salving 
of  H.M.S.  Gladiator,"  I.,  41-48; 
"  The  Story  of  the  Severn  Tunnel," 
I.,  79-89  ;  "  The  Great  Zambesi 
Bridge,"  I.,  90-101  ;  "  A  Wonderful 
Aerial  Ropeway  in  the  Andes,"  I., 
119-127;  "The  Bridges  of  the 
Menai  Straits,"  I.,  142-152  ;  "  The 
Thames  Timnel,"  I.,  181-192  ;  "  The 
Great  Victoria  Bridge,"  I.,  205- 
214;  "The  Story  of  the  Forth 
Bridge,"  I.,  321-337  ;  "  The  Con- 
quest of  Chat  Moss,"  I.,  368,  369; 
"  Scherzer  Rolling  Lift  Bridges," 
IL,  44-49;  "The  Barmen-EIber- 
feld  Railway,"  II.,  125  ;  "  Railway 
Brakes,"  IL,  246-251  ;  "  Theory 
and   Principles   of  the   Aeroplane," 


III.,  5-13  ;  "  Flying  Machines  of 
To-day."  III.,  15-28  ;  "  Aeronauti- 
cal Engines,"  IIL,  29-37;  "The 
Construction  of  Aeroplanes  and 
Propellers,"  III.,  39-44  ;  "  Dirigible 
Balloons,"  IIL,  45-63  ;  "  Harbour 
Construction,"  IIL,  65-79;  "The 
Great  Tunnels  through  the  Alps," 
in.,  148-162;  "Great  British 
Dams  and  Aqueducts,"  IIL,  177- 
192 ;  "  How  London  gets  its  Water," 
IIL,  193-208;  "The  Wonderful 
Drainage  System  of  London,"  IIL, 
209-225;"  The  Kinlochleven  Works 
of  the  British  Aluminium  Company," 
IIL,  272-277;  "The  Arch  Bridges 
of  Niagara  Falls,"  IIL,  278-287; 
"  Agricultural  Engineering,"  IIL, 
288-299. 

Williams,  Ijcslie,  on  "  The  St.  Louis 
Bridge,"  11,  163-171. 

Williams,  Sir  Edward  Leader,  I.,  153, 
155,  166,  171. 

Wilson,  J.  S.,  on  "  The  Nile  Dams  and 
the  Assouan  Reservoir,"  II. ,  385- 
408. 

Wilson,  Professor  Erasmus,  IL,  24. 

Winchester  Cathedral,  underpinning  of, 
IIL,  312-31.5. 

Winstanley's  lighthouse,  I.,  370,  371. 

Wireless  telegraphy,  I.,  202  ;   IIL,  376. 

Wolf  Rock  lighthouse,  L,  375. 

Wonderful  Drainage  System  of 
London,  The,  IIL,  209-225. 

Drainage  the  complement  of 
water  supply,  209  ;  the  problem  of 
draining  London,  209  ;  the  old  rain 
sewers  and  house  cesspools,  211  ; 
difficulty  of  discharging  sewage  into 
the  Thames,  211  ;  reforms  urgently 
needed,    211.     Scheme    of    inter- 


cepting SEWERS  authorized  in  1856, 
211  ;  the  scheme,  211,  212;  storm 
relief  sewers,  213 ;  pollution  of 
Lower  Thames,  214  ;   inquiries  held, 

214  ;  chemical  treatment  of  sewage 
introduced,  215.  Barking  Outfall 
works,  215  ;    precipitation  channels, 

215  ;  sludge  and  sludge  vessels,  217  ; 
dumping  sludge  at  sea,  219  ;  new 
sewers,  219 ;  sewer  construction, 
219  ;  figures  of  discharge  capacity 
of  sewers,  221 ;  sewer  men's  duties 
and  dangers,  221.  Pumping  sta- 
tions, 221  ;  Abbey  mills,  221  ; 
Lot's  Road,  223,  224 ;  Crossness, 
224 ;  other  stations,  224 ;  sur- 
prising figures,  224  ;  effect  of  good 
drainage  on  public  health,  224. 

Workmen,  Indian  and  Burmese,  II. ,  434. 

Wright,  the  brothers,  IIL,  11,  12  ;  early 
experiments,  15,  16 ;  first  flights, 
17  ;  records,  17  ;  their  aeroplane 
described,  18,  19  ;   their  engine,  30. 


Yellowstone  River,  II. ,  89. 
Yukon  River,  L,  21,  22. 


Zambesi  Bridge,TheQreat,L, 90-101. 

Site  of,  91  ;  design,  92,  93 ; 
bearings  and  skewbacks,  94  ;  cable- 
way  at,  95 ;  foundations,  96 ; 
method  of  building,  97  ;  arch  span 
joined,  98  ;  painting,  100  ;  testing, 
100  ;   appearance  of  the  bridge,  101. 

Zambesi  River,  I.,  90. 

Zeppelin,  Count  F.  von,  IIL,  1 ;  his 
dirigible  balloons,  48,  49,  62-56. 


[402] 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS. 


AERONAUTICAL  ENGINES: 

Anzani,  three-cylinder.  III.,  32. 
Bayard  -  Clement,     seven  -  cylinder, 
III.,  34. 

Four-cylinder  for  airship,  III.,  38" 
Fiat,  eight-cylinder.  III.,  37. 
Gnome,  seven-cylinder,  III.,  33. 
Gobron,  eight-cylinder.  III.,  37. 
Green,  four-cylinder,  III.,  31,  32. 
Pipe,  eight-cylinder,  III.,  37. 
AVolseley,  eight-cylinder.  III.,  36. 
Wright,  four-cylinder.  III.,  31. 
Zodiac  III.'s,  III.,  63. 
AEROPLANES: 
Construction  : 

Double-surfaced  deck,  III.,  41. 
Scene  in  factory.  III.,  40. 
.  Single-surfaced  deck,  III.,  39. 
Theory : 

Angle  of  descent,  III.,  8. 

Diagram  showing  forces  acting  on 

oblique  surface,  III.,  6. 
Section  of  deck.  III.,  6. 
Machines  : 

Antoinette  monop'.ane — 

Diagram  of.  III.,  28. 

In  flight.  III.,  26.  28. 

Tuning  up.  III.,  13. 
Bleriot  monoplane — 

Diagram  cf,  III.,  27. 

Carriage  of.  III.,  27. 

In  flight.  III.,  25. 
Cody  biplane — 

Diagram  of.  III.,  24. 

In  flight.  III.,  14. 
Curtiss  biplane.  III.,  22. 
Farman  biplane — 

Diagram  of,  III.,  23. 

At  rest.  III.,  23. 

Carrying  two  persons.  III.,  10. 
Voisin  biplane — 

Diagrams  of,  HI.,  21. 

At  rest,  HI.,  15. 

In  flight.  III.,  20,  22. 
Wright  biplane — 

Diagram  of.  III.,  18. 

On  starting  rail,  III.,  19. 

In  flight.  III.,  4,  16. 
Agamemnon,  H.M.S.,  IL,  356,  359. 
Agricultural  machinery  : 

Combined   harvester   and    thresher, 

horse  drawn.  III.,  295. 
Combined   harvester   and    thresher, 

8t«am  propelled.  III.,  296. 
Disc  plough,  III.,  291. 
Gang  plough,  steam  drawn,  IH.,  298. 
Grain  elevator.  III.,  297. 
"  Header,"   for   reaping   com.   III., 

294. 
Heath  plough.  III.,  292. 
Ivel  agricultural  motor.  III.,  299. 
Mole  drainer.  III.,  293. 
Plough  engines,  Fowler's,  III.,  289. 
Punt  ploughing  tackle.  III.,  290. 
Ridger,  III.,  291. 


Threshing   machine,   old   fashioned, 

III.,  288. 
Threshing    machine,    modem,    Salt 

River  valley,  III.,  294. 
Trenching  machine.  III.,  292. 
Air-locks  : 

Medical,  11.,  107. 
Rotherhithe  Tunnel,  I.,  56. 
Runcorn  Bridge  foundations,  I.,  298. 
Ammunition  hoists  on  warship,  L,  447. 
Anchor,  Mauretania's,  IL,  68. 
Anchorage  for  cables  of  bridge,  I.,  299  ; 

II.,  264,  265,  267. 
Angara,  train  ferry,  I.,  77,  78. 
Apples  grown  on  irrigated  land,  II.,  84. 
AQUEDUCTS: 

Barton  Swing,  L,  163,  167. 
Birmingham  : 

Cut-and-cover  work.  III.,  184. 
Lowering  pipe  into  trench.  III., 

184. 
Larco  ste?l  pipe  at  Maes-y-gelli, 

IIL,  186. 
Map  of,  IIL,  189. 
Three  pipes  in  trench,  IIL,  186. 
Three   pipes   crossing   Worcester- 
shire  and   Staffordshire   Canal, 
HL,  192. 
Carlsbad,  New  Mexico,  II. ,  94. 
Catskill : 

Cut-and-cover  section,  IIL,   108, 

109. 
Map  of  course,  IIL,  107. 
Steel    moulds    for   cut-and-cover, 

IIL,  110. 
Typical  sections,  IIL,  112. 
Kinlochleven,  IIL,  274. 
Liverpool,  map  of,  IIL,  180. 
Manchester,  map  of.  III.,  187. 
Roman : 

Pont  du  Gard,  L,  18. 
Section  of,  I.,  17. 
Segovia,  I.,  16. 
Solani,  IIL,  242. 
Armour  of  a  battleship  : 

Armoured  decks,  I.,  403. 
Barbette,  assembling,  I.,  400. 
Barbette  shield  for  12-inch  gun,  I., 

401. 
Barbette  shield  of  Dreadnought,  I., 

401. 
Disposition   of   armour   on   various 

ships,  I.,  415. 
Planing  armour  plates,  I.,  397. 
Rolling  armour  plates,  I.,  398. 
Steel  communication  tube,  I.,  400. 
Artesian  wells  and  well  boring  : 
Air-lift,  IIL.  345. 
Bomb  for  dynamiting  a  well,  HI., 

335. 
Bourne  well,  IIL,  340. 
Diver  about  to  enter  well,  IIL,  343. 
Drilling  rig  at  work,  IIL,  342. 
Drills— shot  drill,  ni..  339  ;    calyx, 

339. 
Pumping  from  an  artesian  well.  III., 
344. 


Sand  screen,  IIL,  341. 

Sinking  well  in  river  bed,  IIL,  337- 

Spouting  well,  m.,  341. 

Tools  for  well-sinking — chisels,  m., 
338  ;    "  crow's  foot,"   339  ;    latch 
tool,  339  ;   rod-tiller,  338. 
Artesian  wells  of  Australia,  II..  312-320 : 

Cambridge  Downs,  IL,  314,  320. 

Cunnamula,  II. ,  317. 

Dolgelly,  N.S.W.,  IL,  314. 

Eulolo,  IL,  318. 

Maxwelton  No.  1,  IL,  315. 

Moree,  11.,  319. 

Noorama  No.  1,  II. ,  316. 

Toorak,  IL,  318. 
Assouan  dam  : 

Closing  sudd,  IL,  392. 

Foundations,  IL,  394,  395. 

Navigation  canal,  II. ,  402. 

Opening  ceremony,  II. ,  397. 

Plan  of  site,  IL,  391. 

Sections  of  dam,  IL,  394,  408. 

Sluice  lining,  IL,  398. 

Sluices,  Stonev,  U.,  398. 


B 

Baalbec,  great  stone  of,  I.,  11. 
Baikal,  train-ferry,  I.,  65-72,  74,  75,  78. 
Balloons,  dirigible  : 

Clement- Bayard  entering  shed,  IIL, 

57. 
Colonel  R^nard  at  Rheims,  HI.,  48. 
Giffard's,  IIL,  49. 
Gross  IL,  serai-rigid,  IIL,  61. 
Malecot,  semi-rigid,  IIL,  47. 
Parseval  IL,  non-rigid,  IIL,  59,  62. 
Renard  and  Krebs,  IIL,  51. 
Severo's,  IIL,  49. 
Ville  de  Paris,  non-rigid,  IIL,  58. 
Zeppelin,  IIL,  50,  52,  54. 
Zodiac  IIL,  IIL,  56. 
Barking  outfall  works,  plan  of.  III.,  214 
Barrages  : 

Assiout,  n.,  399,  400,  4<r,  4'>< 
Delta,  IL,  390. 
Esneh,  IL,  401,  404. 
Bed-plates,  Forth  Bridge  piers,  L,  331. 
Beira,  railway  pier  at,  IL.  155. 
Bessemer  converter,  in  blast.  III.,  264  ; 

section  of,  IIL,  265. 
Blast   furnace,   IIL,   260 ;    diagram   of, 
IIL,  261  ;   linked  Mrith  gas  engine,  L, 
225. 
Blasting   rocks   at   Fishguard    Harbour, 
I.,   174,   175  :    wreckage  of  Chatham, 
252. 
Block  coeflScient,  I..  352. 
"Blow   out"    in    Thames,    I.,   3u;  .     m 
East  River,  New  York,  from  Battery 
Tunnel.  IL,  119. 
Boilers  : 

Babcock  and  Wilcox  water-tube,  IL. 

32,  33. 
Baikars  being  placed  on  deck,  L,  73. 
Chatham's,  after  blasting,  I.,  252. 
Forced  draught  for,  IL,  33. 


Mauretania's,  II.,  41. 
Scotch  single-ended,  II.,  31. 
Yarrow  water-tube,  II.,  32. 
Boom   across   Portsmouth   Harbour,   I., 

425. 
Bo'sun's  stool  at  work,  II.,  443. 
Brakes : 

Self -releasing,  II.,  291. 
Vacuum  automatic  railway : 

Air  ejector,  II.,  247. 

Carriage  fitted  with  brake,  II.,  247. 

Cylinders,  II.,  246,  249. 

Valve,    guard's    van    and    rapid 
acting,  II.,  248. 
Westinghouse  air  : 

Principle  explained,  250. 

Triple  valve,  II.,  249. 
Breakwaters  : 

Dover,  III.,  72,  73. 
Fishguard,  I.,  177. 
South  Shields,  III.,  68. 
Vera  Cruz,  III.,  75,  76,  77. 
BRIDGES: 
Development  : 

Application  of  load,  I.,  103. 
Continuous  beam,  I.,  103. 
Girder,  plate,  I.,  104. 

Bow-string,  I.,  104,  106. 
Truss — "  king  "    and    "  queen,"    I., 

105  ;  lattice,  106  ;   Warren,  105. 
Suspension  bridge,  I.,  106. 
Cantilever  bridge,  I.,  107. 
Abch  bridges  : 

Grand     Trunk     Railway,     Niagara 

Falls,   III.,   278,   279,   280,    281, 

282,  284,  286. 
Henry  Hudson  Memorial,  II.,  276. 
Manhattan  Valley,  II.,  275. 
Niagara  Falls  and  Clifton,  III.,  285. 
Roman,  over  Danube,  I.,  19. 
St.  Louis,  II.,  166,  167,  168,  171. 
Severn,  for  Birmingham  aqueduct, 

III.,  177. 
Walnut  Lane,  Pliiladelphia,  II.,  275. 
Washington,  II.,  275. 
Zambesi.  L,  93,  94,  95,  96,  97,  98, 

99,  100. 
Cantilevek  : 

Blackwell's    Island,    II.,    271,    272, 

273,  274. 
Forth,  I.,  321,  322,  324,  326,  329, 

330,  331,  332,  333,  334,  337  (in 

London). 
Switchback  canyon,  I.,  31. 
Scherzer  rolling  lift,  II.,  44,  45, 

47,  48,  49. 
Suspension  : 

Brooklvn,  IT.,  260,  261. 
Manhattan,  II.,  265,  267,  268,  269, 

270,  271. 
Menai,  L,  144,  145. 
Williamsburgh,  II.,   257,  262,   263, 

264,  265,  266. 
Swing  : 

Barton,  aqueduct,  I.,  163. 
Transporter : 
Ancient,  I.,  288. 
Marseilles,  I.,  294. 
Middlesborough,  I.,  288. 
Nantes,  I.,  292,  293. 
Newport,  I.,  291. 
Portugaleti,  L,  290. 
Rouen,  L,  290. 
Runcorn,  I.,  295,  296,  298,  299  ;  car, 

L,  286. 
Trestle  : 

Cascade,  California,  III.,  144. 
Lucin  cut-off,  IIL,  137,  140,  141. 
Papio  valley,  III.,  134. 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  III.,  95. 
Uganda  Railway,  II.,  61. 


TUBTTLAR  : 

Britannia,  L,  142,  146,  151,  152. 
Victoria  (old),  L,  206,  208,  211. 
Various  : 

Cape  to  Cairo  Railway  bridges,  II., 

154. 
El  Koye,  I.,  338. 
Irlam,   Manchester   Ship   Canal,   I., 

166. 
New  Victoria,  I.,  205. 
Rhodesia  Railway  bridges,  II.,  161. 
Salisbury,  II.,  53. 
Saltash,!.,  34,  36-40. 
Sittang,  Burma,  II.,  433-437. 
Tel-el-Shihab,  L,  343. 
Uganda  Railwaj'  bridges,  II.,  61. 
Vadi  Ptil,  Hedjaz  Railway,  I.,  349. 
Volga,  IIL,  82. 
Warburton,  Manchester  Ship  Canal, 

L,  166. 
White's     Creek,     Canadian     Pacific 
Railway,  I.  278. 
Britannia  Tower,  I.,  150. 
Broken  Hill,  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway,  II., 

160. 
Brooke  sounder,  11.,  279. 
Brunei,  Isambard  Kingdom,  I.,  35. 
Brunei,  Marc  Isambard,  I.,  182. 
Buoys  for  submarine  cable,  see  "  Cables, 
Buoys." 


CABLES,  SUBMARINE: 

Conductors  and  complete  cables  : 
First  Atlantic  cable  deep-sea  type, 

II.,  285. 
First  Atlantic  cable  shore-end,  II., 

285. 
1805  Atlantic  cable  main  type,  II., 

365. 
1866  Atlantic   cable  shore-end,  II., 

368. 
Types  of  electrical  conductors,  IIL, 

'357. 
Typical  Atlantic  cable  core,  IIL,  359. 
Modern  Atlantic   cable   types,  IIL, 

361. 
Manufacture  : 

Putting  sheathing  on  cable,  II.,  284. 
Coiling  cable  in  factory  tanks,  II., 

286. 
Stranding  machine,  III.,  358. 
Gutta-percha  covering  machine,  IIL, 

358. 
Surveying,  etc.  : 

Brooke  sounder  for  obtaining  samples 

of  the  ocean  bed,  11. ,  279. 
Cable  aboard  ship  : 

Coiling  cable  in  hold  of  Great  Eastern, 

IL,  367. 
Cable  coiled  in  Great  Eastern,  III., 

366. 
Paying-out  machinery,  etc.  : 

Principle  of  self-releasing  brake,  II. , 

291. 
Principle    of     Bright's     paying-out 

gear  II. ,  202. 
Bright's    paying-out    gear   on  Aga- 
memnon, II. ,  294. 
Drum  and  brake,  IIL,  367. 
Fleeting  knives,  IIL,  367. 
Modern  dynamometer  gear,  IIL,  368. 
Bright's  holding-back  gear,  IIL,  368. 
Friction  table  on  Dacia,  IIL,  368. 
General  arrangement  of  paying-out 

gear  on  Great  Eastern,  IIL,  366. 
Picking-up    machine    used    for    re- 
covering the  1865  Atlantic  cable, 

IL,  369. 
Under-running  first  Atlantic  cable  off 

Valencia,  IL,  290. 


Diagram  to  explain  how  1865  cable 

was  brought  up,  II. ,  372. 
Great  Eastern  picking  up  the  1865 
cable,  IL,  373. 
Buoys  : 

Balloon  buoys,  IIL,  371. 

Buoys,  grapnels,  etc.,  used  on  1866 

expedition,  II. ,  369. 
End  of  cable  buoyed,  III.,  369. 
Unshackling  a  buoy,  IIL,  370. 
Landing  cable  : 

Hauling  cable  ashore  by  steam,  IIL, 

371. 
Landing  Irish  end  of  the  first  Atlantic 

cable  at  Valencia,  II. ,  288. 
Landing  American  end  of  the  first 
Atlantic  cable  in  Trinity  Bay,  II. , 
361. 
Silvertown  landing   shore-end,   IIL, 
372. 
Splicing  : 

Preparations  for  slipping  splice  out 

from  stem,  IIL,  372. 
Slipping  bight  at  bows,  IIL,  373. 
Preparing  to  let  go  final  splice.  III., 

374. 
Letting  go  final  bight,  IIL,  374. 
Stations,  testing  apparatus,  etc.  : 
Commercial   Company's    station    at 

Waterville,  IIL,  376. 
Reflecting  galvanometer,  IL,  293. 
Small  testing  hut,  IIL,  370. 
Station'*  in  Newfoundland,  primitive, 

IL,  278,  362. 
Testing  room  on  Colonia,  III.,  375. 
Telegraph  ships  : 
Colonia,  IIL,  363. 
Faraday,  IIL,  363. 
Iria,  IIL,  364. 
Silvertown,  IIL,  365. 
Telconia,  IIL,  364. 
Cable-laying  ships  :  see  above. 
Cableways  : 

Beachy  Head,  I.,  382,  383. 
Famatina  (in  Andes),  L,  120,   125, 

126,  127. 
Various  systems  explained,  I.,  128. 
Zambesi  Bridge,  I.,  96. 
Caissons  : 

Dock  gate,  II. ,  186. 

Double  deck  for  Hudson  River  tubes, 

IL,  112. 
Forth  Bridge,  I.,  326,  328. 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  tunnel  shafts, 

IL,  116. 
Rotherhithe  Tunnel,  I.,  53,  54. 
St.  Louis  Bridge,  IL,  165. 
Thames  Tunnel  shaft,  I.,  184. 
Victoria  Bridge  piers,  I.,  207. 
"  Camels  "  for  ship  salvage  work,  I.,  43. 
CANALS: 
Irrigation  : 

Bari  Doab,  III.,  240. 
Ganges,  IIL,  239,  241,  242. 
Gunnison,  IL,  96. 
Okanogan,  II. ,  86. 
Salt  River,  II. ,  100. 
Shoshone,  II. ,  101. 
Sirhind,  IIL,  238. 
Truckeo  Carson,  IL,  91,  92. 
Yellowstone,  IL,  91. 
Navigation  : 

Manchester  Ship,  I.,  152-171. 
Panama,  IL,  129-149. 
Suez,  I.,  241-256. 
Cantilevers  : 

Blackwell's    Island,    U.,    272,    273, 

274. 
Forth  Bridge,  I.,  332,  333,  335,  336. 
Grand  Trunk  Railway  Arch  Bridge, 
IIL,  281,  282. 


[404] 


Niagara  Falls   and   Clifton   Bridge, 
III.,  285. 

Zambesi  Bridge,  I..  97.  98. 
Car  dumper  at  work,  III.,  259. 
Carnao,  "  Lines  "  of,  I.,  8,  9. 
Cars,  racing  motor : 

De  Dion,  1894,  III.,  322. 

I^vassor,  1895,  III.,  323. 

Bollee,  1898,  III.,  324. 

Panhard,  1899,  III.,  325. 

Napier,  1902,  III.,  327. 

Mercedes,  1903,  III.,  328. 

Darracq,  1904,  III.,  328. 

Darracq,  1905,  HI.,  330. 

Thomas,  1905,  III.,  330. 

Napier,  1905,  IH.,  331. 

Darracq,  1905,  III.,  331. 

Clement-Bayard,  1908,  III.,  332. 

Weigel,  1908,  III.,  332. 

De  Dietrich,  1908,  III.,  332. 

Mercedes,  1908,  III.,  333. 

Napier,  1908,  III.,  333. 

Mercedes,  1909,  III.,  333. 
Church  car  on  Trans-Siberian  Railway, 

III.,  87. 
Clearing  sand  from  Trans-Caspian  Rail- 
way, II.,  376. 
Cleopatra's  Needle,  II.,  22-27. 
Coal  tip  at  Partington,  I.,  168. 
Collision  with  a  whale  while  cable-laying, 

11.,  358. 
Colorado  River  closure.  III.,  113-121. 
Colossal  planer,  11.,  382,  383,  384. 
Colossi  at  Thebes,  I.,  10,  12. 
Comic  sketch  of  Fell  Railway,  HI.,  305. 
Conning  tower,  I.,  446. 
Conversion  of  gauge  of  Great  Western 

Railway,  I.,  108,  112,  113,  114,  115. 
Cranes : 

Floating,  lifting  boiler,  11.,  80. 

Goliath,  m.,  66,  69,  78. 

Titan,  I.,  178  ;  IH.,  67,  68,  77. 

Sheer-legs,  lifting  test  load,  II.,  67. 
Culebra  cut,  Panama  Canal : 

Views  of,  n.,  143. 

Sections,  II.,  144,  145. 

Ladder  dredger  at  work  in,  II.,  146. 
Curve  in  tunnel,  I.,  60  ;   II.,  123. 


D 
DAMS: 

Bhatghur,  III.,  243. 

Blackwater  (Kinlochleven),  III.,  274. 

Caban  Coch,  III.,  188. 

Careg  Ddu,  III.,  185. 

Craig  Goch,  III.,  182. 

Colorado  River,  HI.,  118,  120,  121, 

Cross  River,  IH.,  102,  103,  104. 

Croton,  New,  IH.,  96,  97,  100,  101. 

Ganges  Canal,  temporary.  III.,  239. 

Gatun,  n.,  142. 

La  Grange,  11.,  93. 

Marikanave,  IH.,  245,  247. 

Minidoka,  IL,  86. 

Needle  dams,  IIL,  173-176. 

Olive  Bridge,  III.,  105,  106. 

Pen-y-Gareg,  III.,  190. 

Roosevelt,  11.,  99. 

Truckee,  II.,  92. 

TwinFalls,  IL,  9^. 

Vischer's  Ferry,  III.,  166. 

Vymwy,  III.,  178. 
Delta  barrage,  II.,  390. 
Desert,  Arabian,  I.,  342. 
Divers,  naval,  I.,  441  ;   diver  descending 
into   water   at  Winchester   Cathedral, 
m.,  314  ;   on  artesian  well  work.  III., 
343. 
DOCKS: 

Canada  dry  dock,  Liverpool,  11.,  174. 


Dry  dock,  s.-ciiun  ..t,  II.,  17H. 

ilntrance  to,  XI.,  1m. 

Liverpool,  II.,  17<). 

Manchester,  II.,  185. 

Soutliampton    new    wet  I., 

173,  181.  182. 

Tilbury,  II.,  176. 

Trafalgar,  II. ,  179. 

Wall  of  dock,  IF.,  184. 
DOCKS,  FLOATING: 

Barcelona  depositing,  11.,  410. 

Bermuda,   docking  central  portion, 
IL,  414. 

Depositing   dock,   principle  of,   IT., 
412. 

Flensburg  off-shore,  II.,  415. 

Genoa,  outrigger,  II.,  411. 

Off-shore,  IL,  413. 

Outrigger,  IL,  413. 

Stettin,  Spree  lifted,  IL,  417. 

Trinidad,  IL,  409,  416. 

Two-walled,  types  of,  IL,  413. 
Dolmen,  I.,  6. 

"  Dotter,"  for  gun  practice,  I.,  413. 
DREDGERS: 

Bucket,  I.,* 248,  249  ;   IL,  133,  136. 

Long-shoot,  I.,  170,  248. 

Suction,    L,    254;     IL,    133,    136; 
IIL,  163,  167,  169. 
Drills,  power  : 

At  La  Obispo,  Panama  Canal,  II. , 
139. 

Brandt,  IIL,  153,  159. 
Drilling  machine,  multiple,  IL,  67. 
Dynamometer  car,  railway,  IL,  253-255. 


Earthquake,   effect   on   buildings,   II. , 

10,  11,  13. 
Elevators,    grain — at    Fort  William,    L, 
284;    at  St.  John's,  New  Brunswick, 
IIL,  297. 
Embankments  : 

Ashokan  reservoir.  III.,  106. 

EUesmcre  Port,  L,  161. 

Ince  Bay,  I.,  162. 

Pool  Hall  Bay.  I.,  159. 

Lucin  cut-off,  IIL,  138. 

Omaha  cut-off,  IIL,  134. 
Engines,  marine  : 

Charlotte  Dundas\  IT.,  30. 

Deutschland's,  II. ,  29. 

Empress  Queen's,  paddle,  11.,  35. 

Mauretania's,  IL,  40. 

Quadruple  expansion,  II. ,  34. 

Scene  in  engine-room  of  battleship, 
L,  445. 
Ermack,  IIL,  123. 
Excavators  : 

Lubecker,  H.,  180,  182  ;    HI.,  168, 
169. 

Thompson  ladder,  I.,  301. 


Facsimile  of  one  of  the  first  messages 

sent  over  the  first  Atlantic  cable,  11., 

363. 
Fell  centre-rail  track.  III.,  302 ;    radial 

tank  engine.  III.,  .302  ;   railway,  comic 

sketch  of,  IIL,  305. 
Ferrying  locomotive  across  Kafu6  River, 

n.,  159. 
Field  anvils,  Roman  and  English  com- 

f>arod,  I.,  19. 
ter  beds,  IIL,  207. 
Fire  at  Baku,  IL,  324. 
Fire  control  on  battleship,  I.,  448. 
Fishguard  harbour — old,  L,   173  \    new, 
173,  180. 

[405] 


i' tlian,  pro«onte<i  li.  Ffll, 

Hi..  . '104. 
Floating  centre  Kpans  of  Sittang  Bridge, 

IL,  4.'{5. 
"  Fretv.ing  out,"  L,  67. 
Funnels  of  Mauretanin,  If  ,  42. 
Furnace  chargers,  mtvli^un    il  : 
For  pig  iron,  111,  J'   i 
For  Blabs,  II I 


(i 

Galvanometer,  roflfxtu,/.  II  ,  _'.':{. 
Gap,  the,  in  the  Rockies,  I.,  272. 
Gas  cleaners,  I.,  220,  221. 
Gas  engines  : 

Clerk  double-acting,  f.,  217. 
Korting  6fX)  horse-power,  I.,  215. 
Two-cycle,  L,  223. 
Five  2,000  horse-power,  L,  224. 
Niirnberg  900  horse-power,  L,  218. 
1,8(K)  horse-power,  I..  222. 
2,4(XJ  horse-power,  L,  222. 
Oechelhauser,  I.,  223. 
Otto  cycle,  principle  of,  I.,  216. 
Premier  2,00()  horse-power,  I.,  219. 
Gas  producer,  I.,  218. 
Gauge  arch,  I.,  64. 
Giant  of  Kerdef,  L,  7. 
Glaciers  at  Eismeer  station,  IIL,  310. 
Gladiator,  H.M.S.,  I.,  41-48. 
Gradients  on  London  Tube  Railways,  I., 

310. 
"  Great  Divide,"  the,  L,  276. 
Great  Eastern,  L,  317  ;      11.,  366,  371, 

373,  374. 
Grouting  apparatus,  I.,  309. 
Guns,  12-inch  : 

Breech  action,  I.,  405. 

Firing,  I.,  448. 

In  trial  barbette,  I.,  410. 

Ijifting  on  deck,  L,  404. 

Numl^r  of  rounds  fired  per  minute, 

L,  409. 
Penetration,  L,  408. 
Range,  L,  407. 
Shells,  L,  411. 
Wire- winding,  I.,  406. 
Gu.shing  or  spouting  oil-wells,  11.,  330, 
331,  332. 

H 

Haifa,   landing  constructional   material 

for  Hedjaz  Railway  at,  I.,  341. 
HARBOURS: 
Dover  : 

Block-making  yard,  III.,  70. 
Divers,  IIL,  66,  78. 
Diving-bell,  III.,  71. 
Lowering  concrete  block,  m.,  73. 
Plan,  in.,  79. 

West  end  of  island  breakwater,  HI., 
72. 
Fishguard,  L,  172.  173. 
Vera  Cruz,  IIL,  75.  76,  77. 
Hauling  stone  bull,  I.,  14. 
Hawkshaw,  Sir  John,  I.,  82. 
Hydraulic     weir    shutters,     IIL,     235 ; 
wheel  piers.  II. ,  2.")2. 

I 

Incline,    Kikuyu  escarpment,   11.,   58, 

59,  60. 
Inspection  car,   petrol  driven,  for  rail- 
ways, II. ,  157. 
Irrigation  : 

Basin  and  perennial,  diagram  show- 
ing  principle,  II.,  387. 
Irrigation  works  : 

In  India,  III.,  232-249. 

In  United  States,  11.,  81-102. 


Jetty  at  head  of  Loch  Leven,  III.,  272. 
Jhelum  weir,  III.,  232. 


K 

Kafu^  River,  ferrying  locomotive  across, 

II.,  159. 
Kinlochleven    aluminium     works.     III., 

272-277. 


Landing  American  end  of  first  Atlantic 

cable,  II.,  361. 
Launching  ways,  II.,  75,  76,  78. 
Levels  of  Colorado  River,  III.,  121. 
LIGHTHOUSES: 

Beachy  Head,  1.,  383,  384. 
Bell  Rock,  L,  373. 
Bishop  Rock,  iron,  I.,  378. 

Stone,  L,  378-381. 
Chicken  Rock,  I.,  376. 
Dhu  Heartach,  I.,  373. 
Eddystone  : 
New,  I.,  376. 
Rudyerd's,  I.,  371. 
Smeaton's,  L,  371,  373. 
Winstanley's,  I.,  371. 
Fastnet,  I.,  374,  375. 
Skerry voro,  I.,  373. 
Wolf,  L,  376. 
LOCKS: 

Barton,  I.,  160. 
Eastham,  I.,  158. 
Gatun,  IL,  139. 
Irlam,  L,  153. 
Poe,  III.,  171,  172. 
Waterford,  New  York,  IIL,  166. 
Weitzel,  IIL,  171,  172. 
LOCOMOTIVES,  STEAM,  IL,  193- 

215  ;  5ce  Subject  Index. 
LOCOMOTIVES,    ELECTRIC,    IL, 

217-222;  sec  Subject  Index. 
Lubecker     excavator,     II. ,     180,     182 ; 
m.,  168,  169. 


M 
Mafeking,  II. ,  162. 
Magnet,  electric  : 

Lifting  pig-iron,  IIL,  262. 

Lifting  plate  and  three  men,  III. ,  262. 

Lifting  "  skull  cracker,"  IIL,  263. 
MAPS: 
Aqueducts,  etc.  : 

Ashokan  reservoir,  IIL,  104. 

Birmingham  aqueduct,  IIL,  189. 

Catskill  aqueduct,  IIL,  107. 

Croton,  old  and  new  aqueducts,  IIL, 
98. 

Liverpool  aqueduct,  IIL,  180. 

Manchester  aqueduct,  IIL,  187. 
Canals : 

Manchester  Ship,  I.,  155,  171. 

Panama,  IL,  130,  131,  134,  141. 

Suez,  I.,  243. 
Railways  : 

Bergen-Kxistiania,  IIL,  348. 

Canadian  Pacific,  I.,  259. 

Cape  to  Cairo,  II. ,  153. 

Fell,  IIL,  303. 

Florida  East  Coast  Extension,  I.,  137. 

Hedjaz,  I.,  340. 

Jungfrau,  IIL,  307. 

Trans-Caspian    and    Orenburg,    IL, 
377. 

Trans-Siberian,  IIL,  85. 

Tube  railways  of  Lor.-lon,  I.,  228. 

Uganda,  IL,  51. 

White  Pass,  I.,  22. 


Tunnels  : 

Alpine,  IIL,  152. 
New  York,  IL,  104. 
New  York  Subway,  II. ,  343. 
Rotherhithe,  I.,  51. 
Thames,  L,  183. 
Various  : 

African  Trans-continental  Telegraph 

route,  L,  198. 
Atla„ntic  cables,  projected  routes  for, 

IL,  281. 
Baikal,  route  of  transport  of  parts, 

L,  78. 
Barur  tank  system  in  Madras,  IIL, 

244. 
Chenab  River  and  Canal,  IIL,  236. 
Colorado   River  closure   operations, 

IIL,  115. 
Godaveri  delta,  IIL,  244. 
Indian  rainfall,  IIL,  233. 
Indian    rivers   and    chief   irrigation 

works,  IIL,  234. 
Kinlochleven  aluminium  works,  etc., 

IIL,  273. 
London  drainage  system,  IIL,  210 ; 

Barking  outfall  works,  IIL,  214. 
London  water  supply,  HI.,  197. 
London  to  Ireland  main  routes,   I., 

179. 
Niagara  Falls,  II. ,  296. 
Nile  valley,  IL,  380. 
United  States — arid,  semi-arid,  and 
humid  regions,  II. ,   88  ;    natural 
forests    and    irrigation    projects, 
IL,  88. 
Victoria  Falls,  I.,  92. 
Marconi  towers,  Poldliu,  II. ,  438-444. 
Marine  engines,  see  "  Engines,  Marine," 

and  "  Turbines,  Steam." 
Menai  Suspension  Bridge,  L,  144,  145. 
Menhir,  L,  7. 
Metacentre,  I.,  352. 
Milwaukee,  IIL,  125,  126,  127. 
Model  of  ship,  wax  : 
Cutting,  L,  350. 
Completed,  L,  351. 
Testing,  in  tank  at  Washington,  L, 
357,  358. 
Mombasa,  landing  railway  material  at, 

II. ,  59. 
Monolith,  concrete,  sinking  a,  for  dock 

wall  foundations,  IL,  183. 
Montauk  Theatre,  moving  the,  II. ,  445, 

446. 
Mont  Cenis  Road,  IIL,  303. 
Mosque  at  Tebuk,  I.,  348. 
Mould  loft,  IL,  69. 
Monument : 

Hedjaz  Railway  at  Haifa,  I.,  339. 
Lesseps,  at  Port  Said,  I.,  256. 
Moving  buildings  bodily,  IL,  445,  447. 


N 

Natala,  II. ,  389. 

New  River,  at  Hoe  Lane  pumping  sta- 
tion, IIL,  196. 

New  York  Subway,  II. ,  342-354. 

Niagara  Falls,  IL,  295,  296,  297,  311. 

Niagara,  U.S.N.S.,  IL,  287,  360. 

Nile,  statue  of  Father,  IL,  385. 

Nile  valley,  perspective  view  and  map, 
IL,  386. 

O 

Oil  tank  steamer.  Swan  principle,  XL, 

339. 
Oil  wells  : 

Baku,  IL,  330,  331,  333. 

California,  IL,  335. 

Texas,  IIL,  332. 

[  406  ] 


Open- hearth  steel  furnaces  : 

Diagram  of,  IIL,  265. 

Row  of,  IIL,  266. 

Tapping,  IIL,  267. 

Tilting  typo,  IIL,  268. 
Ore  handling  plant : 

Automatic  unloader,  IIL,  258,  259. 

Hulett  conveyor.  III.,  257. 


Panic  in  Severn  Tunnel,  I.,  86. 

Paying-out  gear,  Bright's,  IL,  292-294. 

Peiton  wheel,  IIL,  276. 

Petroleum  wells,  11.,  321-341. 

Philae,  tomple  of,  IL,  406. 

Picking-up  machine  for  submarine  cables, 

IL,  369. 
Pier  of  Victoria  Bridge,  L,  207-209. 
Pile-driving — through  ice,  I.,  280  ;    San 

Francisco  Bay,  IIL,  146. 
Pipe  joint,  "  muff,"  IIL,  276. 
Pipe  line  : 

Birmingham  aqueduct,  IIL,  186. 

Kinlochleven,  IIL,  275. 
Planing  machine,  EC.,  382,  383,  384. 
PORTRAITS : 

Brett,  John  Watkin,  IL,  280. 

Bright,  Sir  Charles  T.,  II. ,  280. 

Brunei,  Isambard  Kingdom,  I.,  35. 

Brunei,  Marc  Isambard,  I.,  182. 

Bythell,  J.  K.,  L,  157. 

Eads,  James  B.,  IL,  163. 

Field.  Cyrus  West,  IL,  280. 

Gibson,  Herbert  M.,  L,  157. 

Hawkshaw,  Sir  John,  I.,  82. 

Hunter,  W.  H.,  I.,  157. 

Latimer,  E.,  I.,  157. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  I.,  242. 

Myddleton,  Sir  Hugh,  IIL,  195. 

Stepheiason,  Robert,  I.,  147. 

Telford,  Thomas,  L,  143. 

Van  Horno,  Sir  William,  L,  259. 

Walker,  T.  A.,  L,  83. 

Williams,  Sir  Edward  Leader,  I.,  156. 
POWER  STATIONS: 

Canadian  Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany, IL,  304,  305,  306. 

Kinlochleven,  IIL,  277. 

Lot's  Road,  Chelsea,  IIL,  228. 

New  York  Metropolitan,  IL,  16. 

New  York  Subway,  IL,  353. 

Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  and  Manu- 
facturing Company,  II. ,  298,  299. 

Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  II. , 
300,  301,  302. 

Ontario  Power  Company,  II. ,  306, 
307,  308,  309. 
Power  transmission  lines,  II. ,  309. 
Propellers,  aerial,  IIL,  42,  43. 
Pumping  stations  ; 

Abbey  mills,  IIL,  213. 

London  waterworks,  IIL,  198. 

Lot's  Road,  IIL,  218. 
Pyramids  of  Egypt,  I.,  12,   13  ;    Great 
Pyramid  and  Mauretania,  I.,  319. 


Quay  at  Fishguard  harbour,  laying  first 
block,  L,  178. 

R 

Rafts    colliding    with    Victoria    Bridge 

piers,  L,  214. 
RAILWAYS: 

Barmen-El'berfeld,  II. ,  124-128. 
Bergen-Kristiania,  IIL,  347-356. 
Canadian  Pacific,  I.,  262,  264,  265, 
267,  268,  269,  271,  272,  276,  277, 
278,  279,  280,  283.  284,  285. 


Cape  to  Cairo,  II.,  150-1G2. 
Central  Pacific,  HI.,  142, 143, 144, 147. 
Chicago  Freight  Subways,  I.,  359-307. 
Florida   East   Coast   Extension,   L, 

130-141. 
London  tubes,  I.,  230-240,  300-311.' 
St.  Gothard,  III.,  148. 
Trans-Caspian,  II.,  376,  378,  380. 
Trans-Siberian,  HI.,  81-95. 
Uganda,  II.,  50- G4. 
Union  Pacific,  III.,   130,   132,   134, 

136,  137-141. 
Wetterhorn  Electric,  II.,  188-192. 
White  Pass,  I.,  21-33. 
Range,  maximum,  of  big  guns,  I.,  407. 
REINFORCED  CONCRETE: 

Adhesion  of  steel  and  concrete,  IT., 

425. 
Aqueduct,  III.,  274. 
Ballroom,  11.,  432. 
Beam,  11.,  423,  424,  426. 
Bridges  : 

Blagodatuoie,  II.,  429. 

Chingford  re-servoir.  III.,  204. 

Hudson  Memorial,  II.,  276. 

Sambre,  XL,  419. 
Cattle   gallery,   Fishguard   harbour, 

I.,  179. 
Colunms,  11,  426,  427. 
Cost,  compared  with  steel,  II.,  421, 

422. 
New  General  Post  Office  buildings, 

XL,  430. 
Pebbles  for,  11.,  420. 
Piles,  II.,  428. 
Sand  for,  II.,  420. 
Staircase,  XL,  430. 
Strength,  compared  with  steel,  11., 

421. 
Torpedo  station,  XL,  432. 
Viaducts,  L,  135-139,  141. 
Water  tower,  XL,  431. 
RESERVOIRS: 

Ashokan,  IH.,  104. 
Chingford,  new,  XXL,  200-203, 
Honor  Oak,  IIL,  193,  205. 
Lake  Fife,  IIL,  243. 
Lake  Vyrnwy,  IIL,  178. 
Lake  Whiting,  HI.,  243. 
Marikanave,  IIL,  248. 
Ring  of  lining,  Rotherhithe  Tunnel,  L,  55. 
Riveters,  hydraulic,  XL,  73,  74,  252. 
Rolling  mill  for  armour  plate,  I.,  398. 
Roosevelt,  President,  at  Panama  Canal 

works,  IX. ,  149. 
Rotary  digger.  Price's,  L,  302,  303,  305. 
Rudder  frame  of  battleship,  I.,  391. 


Saddle,     cable,     Runcorn     transporter 
bridge,  L,  298  ;   Brooklyn  Bridge,  U., 
261. 
Sailing  ships  : 

Great  Harry,  L,  314. 
Santa  Maria,  L,  313. 
Royal  George,  L,  314. 
Sakieh,  XL,  389. 
Saloon,  dining-car,  Rhodesian  railways, 

XL,  150. 
Salt  Liake  valley,  compared  with  valley 

of  the  Jordan,  11. ,  85. 
Salton  Sea,  sunset  on,  IIL,  114. 
Sand  panels  for  keeping  sand  off  railway, 

n.,  380. 
Sand  washer,  mechanical,  IIL,  207. 
Screw,  Roman,  L,  20. 
Searchlights  at  work,  I.,  449. 
S«wer8  of  London  : 

Bermondsev,  IIL,  220. 
Catford-Blackheath,  IIL,  225. 


Diversion  chamber.  III.,  :.'!.:>. 

Northern  outfall.  111..  216,  218,  222. 

Plumstoad-CrossnoBS,  IIL,  209,  223. 

Weir  chamber,  Abbey  Mills,  IIL,  215. 
Shadoof,  IL,  389. 
Sheer-legs,  in  Suez  Canal,  I.,  253,  lifting 

180  tons,  IL,  67. 
Shells  for  big  guns  : 

Group  of  12-inch,  L,  412. 

Number  fired  per  minute  (compara- 
tive diagram),  I.,  409. 

Penetration  (comparative  diagram), 
L,  408. 

Weight  of  12-inch,  L,  411. 
SHIPBUILDING: 

Adriatic  on  slips,  II. ,  66. 

Beniling  plate  in  hydraulic  press, 
II. ,  72. 

Cranks  turning  in  lathe,  II. ,  69. 

Drilling  armour  plates,  II. ,  74. 

Frames,  stringers,  etc.,  IL,  70. 

Launching  cradle,  II. ,  75,  76. 

Launch  of  Ndson,  IL,  77  ;  of  Lord 
Nelson,  IL,  78. 

Mauretania  being  framed,  IL,  72. 

Mauretania's  keel  and  double  bot- 
tom, IL,  71. 

Mould  loft,  IL,  69. 

Multiple  drilling  machine,  II.,  67. 

Riveter,  hydraulic,  II. ,  74 ;  portable; 
n.,  73. 

Shaft  tunnel  of  big  liner,  II. ,  79. 

Sheer-legs,  II. ,  67. 

Stern  frame,  IL,  73. 
Shipbuilding  feats,  extraordinary : 

Ermack,  with  new  bow  fitted,  IIL, 
123. 

Mabel  Grace,  with  bows  shattered, 
IIL,  128. 

Milwaukee,  in  dock  after  accident, 
IIL,  125 ;  ready  for  new  bow, 
126 ;  old  and  new  parts  ready 
for  fitting,  127. 

Wittekind  in  dock  for  lengthening, 
IIL,  122. 
SIGNALLING,  RAILWAY: 
Audible  : 

Cab  indicator,  whistle,  and  bell,  II. , 
239. 

General  view  of  cab,  showing  ap- 
paratus installed,  II. ,  240. 

Rear  part  of  locomotive,  showing 
contact  shoe,  II. ,  239. 

Ramp  for  operating  audible  signal, 
II. ,  239. 
Automatic  electric  : 

Automatic  brake  application, IL, 236. 

Diagram  showing  operation  of  elec- 
tric railway,  IL,  235. 

Diagram  showing  operation  of  steam 
railway,  II. ,  237. 

On  New  York  subway,  IL,  351. 

On  single  lines  : 

Diagram    showing    operations    of 

successive  sections,  II. ,  238. 
Electric  staff  holder,  II. ,  237. 

Principle  of  automatic  signalling, 
IL.  234. 

Signal  on  American  railways,  11.,  236. 

Signal   on   North- Eastern   Railway, 
II. ,  235. 
Interlocking  : 

Facing  point  lock,  II. ,  228. 

Lever  locking,  II. ,  229. 

System  of  interlocking  points  and 
signals,  11.,  228. 

Tappets,  etc.,  of  locking  frame,  IL, 
229. 
Power  sionallino  : 

Electric  locking  frame.  New  York 
Central  Railway,  II. ,  230. 

[407] 


Electric    locking  frame  at  Reading, 

Great  Western  Railway,  II.,  231. 
Electro  pneumatic  signals,  WaHlung- 

ton,  n.,  234. 
Point-sluf  ting  electric  motor.  11.,  232. 
r  '      switch,  IL.  233. 

at  Earl's  Court,  IL,  238. 

Sk.v..:  ,  ETC.  : 

Balanced  arm,  II. ,  227. 
Disc  signals,  old,  II..  220. 
Distant  signal,  II.,  226. 
Gantry,  Oewe,  II..  22.5. 
Stopped  signals,  II.,  220. 
Sludge    being    tranHforred    to    vessel   at 

Barking,  IIL,  217. 
Sluices  between   Manchester  Ship  Canal 

and  Mersey,  I.,  100. 
Sluices,  Stoney,  II. ,  398. 
Snow  ploughs,  railway  : 

Bergen- Kristiania     Railway,      IIL, 

350,  354. 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  I.,  263. 
Rotary,    H.,    242-245;     IIL,    350, 

354. 
Wedge  shaped,  IL,  242. 
Snow-sheds  : 

Bergon-Kristiania     Railway,     HI., 

352,  353. 
Canadian  Pacific   Railway,   I.,  280, 
281. 
Sphinx,  I.,  15. 
Spike,  driving  the  last  of  the  Canadian 

Pacific  Railway,  I.,  283. 
Spreader,  mechanical  dump,  IL,  146. 
Stations,  railway  : 

Bogotol,     Trans-Siberian     Railway, 

III.,  91. 
Dopporsberg,         Barmen  -  Elberfeld 

Railway,  11.,  125,  126. 
Eigorgletscher  and  Eigerwand,  Jung- 

frau  Railway,  HI.,  309,  301. 
Hallingskeid,        Bergen  -  Kristiania 

Railway,  IIL,  347. 
Moazamma,  Hedjaz  Railway,  I.,  347. 
■  Moose  Jaw,  Canadian  Pa<'itir   Rail- 
way, I.,  262. 
New  York  Subway,  II. ,  3.')  I. 
Tebuk,  Hedjaz  Railway,  I.,  347. 
Vancouver.   Canadian    Pacific    Rail- 
way, I.,  280. 
Statue  of  Liberty,  IIL,  250-256. 
STEAMSHIPS       {see       "Warships," 
"  Cables,        Submarine,         Telegraph 
Ships"): 

Angara,  L,  77,  78. 
Baikal,  I.,  05-78. 
Cargo : 

Cantilever  framed,  I.,  355. 
Clermont,  Comet,  and  Charlotte  Dun- 
das,  L,  315. 
Development  in  horse-power  (1840- 

1907),  L,  320. 
Development  in  size,  I..  318. 
Doxford  "  turret,"  I.,  354. 
Great  Eastern,  see  Index. 
Half  section,  L,  353 
Longitudinal  framed,  I.,  355. 
Longitudinal  section,  I.,  354,  356. 
Lusitania,  L,  312  ;   IL,  172. 
Mauretania,  I.,  319. 
Oil  tanker,  longitudinal  section,  11., 

339 
Tank,  half  section,  I.,  350. 
Steam  shovel,  II. ,  138  : 

In  new  dock,  Southampton,  II.,  181, 

182. 
On  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  L,  268. 
STEEL-FRAME  BUILDINGS: 
Brooklyn  .Vcademv.  IL,  10. 
Butlfth)  Savings  Bank,  II.,  17. 
Crystal  Palace.  IL,  3. 


Earthquake,  effects  on,  II.,  10, 11, 13. 
Foundations,  caissons  for,  II.,  7. 
Ritz  Hotel,  II.,  6,  8. 
Singer  building,  II.,  5. 
Height,  increase  in,  II.,  3. 
Metropolis  Bank  bu  Iding,  II.,  9. 
Metropolitan  Life  Assurance  build- 
ing, II.,  15,  20. 
Metropolitan  power  station,  II.,  16. 
Montgomery  Ward  building,  II.,  21. 
Protection    of    steel    work    against 

fire,  II,,  12,  13. 
Singer  building,  II.,  18,  19. 
Speed  of  construction,  II.,  5,  10. 
Truss  carrying  twelve  stories,  II.,  16. 
Wind-bracing,  II.,  14,  15. 
Stone  carriers,  Indian,  III.,  247. 
Stonehenge,  I.,  6,  14. 
Strathcona,  Lord,  driving  last  spike  of 

Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  I.,  283. 
Superheater,  Schmidt's,  II.,  256. 
Surveying  on  Mount  Leone,  for  Simplon 
Tunnel,  III.,  154. 


Tank    steamer    for    oil    carriage,    11., 

339. 
Telegraph     line    construction  —  African 
Trans-continental  Telegraph  : 
Bracketing  wire,  I.,  193. 
Erecting  pole,  I.,  199. 
Repairing  station,  Nkata,  I.,  202. 
Straining  wire,  I.,  200. 
Telegraph  station  : 

Kota  Kota,  L,  203. 
Newfoundland,  II.,  278,  362. 
Poldhu,  IL,  438,  439. 
Waterville,  III.,  376. 
Teredo,  ravages  of,  I.,  180. 
Thermal  eificiencii^  of  engines,  I.,  226. 
Tliames  Tunnel,  see  "  Tunnels." 
Thompson  ladder  excavator  for  tunnel- 
ling, L,  301. 
Timbering  in  tunnel,  I.,  88. 
Time-table   of   Trans-Caspian   Railway, 

IL,  381. 
Toggle,  adjusting,  for  cantilevers  of  arch 

bridge,  IIL,  278,  285. 
Tombs,  Nebatean,  I.,  348. 
Torpedoes : 

Dropping  gear,  I. ,  439. 
Firing,  I.,  436,  438. 
Instruction,  I.,  440. 
Picking  up,  I.,  433. 
Ready  for  discharge,  I.,  435. 
Section  of  Whitehead,  I.,  434. 
Whitehead  in  tube,  I.,  434. 
Towers  of  Forth  Bridge,  I.,  329,  330. 
Track  thrower,  mechanical,  II. ,  147. 
Traction    engine    on    Uganda    Railway 

works,  II. ,  57. 
Train — Canadian  Pacific  Railway  adver- 
tisement,  I.,  285 ;    contractors'   elec- 
tric, for  tunnel,  L,  237. 
Trestles  at  Colorado  River  closure.  III., 

113;  see  "  Bridges." 
Truss,  timber.  New  York  Subway,  IL, 

347,  348. 
Tubes— Britannia  Bridge,  L,  148,  149; 

Victoria  Bridge,  L,  211,  213. 
TUNNELLING: 

Chicago  Subway,  moulding,  I.,  363, 
364. 


Cut-and-cover,  I.,  52. 

Exploring  below  tunnel  with  boring 

machine,  II. ,  120. 
Lining  with  brickwork,  I.,  88. 
Lining  with  iron,  I.,  55,  62. 
Pilot  tunnel,  IL,  109. 
Rock  boring,  IL,  118  ;  IIL,  159. 
Rust  joints,  I.,  62. 
Screw  pile  foundation,  Pennsylvania 

Railroad,  IL,  113. 
Setting  out,  I.,  231,  232. 
Shaft  sinking,  I.,  53,  54,  81. 
Surveying,  IL,  105,  106. 
TUNNELLING  SHIELDS: 
Assisted  shield  method,  L,  305. 
East   River   gas  tunnel  shield,  11., 

107. 
Greathead  shield,  I.,  233,  238,  304. 
Hooded  shield,  I.,  306,  308. 
Hudson   River   Tunnel   sliield,   II., 

108,  109. 
Lower  Hudson  River  Tunnel  shield, 

IL,  110. 
Pennsylvania   Railroad   East  River 

Tunnel  shield,  IL,  114,  115. 
Rotherhithe  Tunnel  shield,   I.,   57, 

58,  59. 
Station  shields,  L,  233,  238,  240. 
Steering  shield  round  curve,  I.,  234; 

vertically,  236. 
Thames  Tunnel  shield,  L,  186,  187. 
Turbines,  steam.  Parson's  : 
Blading,  11.,  38. 
Drum,  IL,  39. 
Lot's  Road  power  station  turbine, 

IIL,  231. 
Mauretania's,  II. ,  40. 
Principle  of,  IL,  37. 
Rotor  complete,  II. ,  39. 
Turbines,  water  : 

Niagara  Falls  Power  Company's,  IT., 

302,  303. 
Ontario  Power  Company's,  II. ,  308. 
Pelton  wheel,  IIL,  276,  277. 
TUNNELS: 

Central  London  Railway  station,  I., 

230. 
City  and  South  London  (section),  I., 

229. 
Gunnison,  II. ,  96. 
Huntley  irrigation,  IL,  86. 
Jungfrau  Railway,  IIL,  305,  308. 
Mink,  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  I., 

262. 
MjTdal,  Bergen- Kristiania  Railway, 

IIL,  351. 
New  York : 

Battery,  H.,  121. 

East  River  gas,  IL,  107. 

Harlem  River,  II. ,  104. 

Lower  Hudson  River,  IL,  110. 

Steinway,  IL,  121,  122. 

Subway,  II. ,  344,  347,  349,  350. 
Rotherhithe,  L,  49-64. 
St.  Gothard,  entrances,  IIL,  150. 
Severn,  L,  80,  81,  89. 
Simplon : 

Brandt  drill  at  work,  IIL,  159. 

Brieg  portal,  IIL,  161. 

False  arches,  IIL,  157,  158. 

Inroads  of  water,  IIL,  156. 

Iselle  portal,  III.,  160. 
Thames,  L,  181-192. 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  III.,  81. 


Tube  of  London,  L,  311. 
Waterloo  and  City,  L,  229. 

U 

UNDERPINNINa  : 

New   York   Elevated   Railway,   11., 

350. 
New  York  Times  building,  11.,  349. 
St.    Mary    Woolnoth   Church,  IH., 

317,  318,  319. 
Winchester  Cathedral,  IIL,  313. 
Unload er,  Lidgerwood,  II. ,  142. 


Valve  gears  : 

Joy,  n.,  251. 

Stephenson,  II. ,  245. 

Walschaert,  II. ,  256. 
Viaducts : 

Lethbridge,   Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way. I.,  257. 

Long  Key,  L,  139,  141. 
Victoria  Falls,  L,  90,  91,  92  (map),  93 

(penspective  view),  99. 
Vnlkan,  IH.,  124. 
Vyi'nwy,  Lake  : 

Site  before  flooding,  IIL,  178. 

Water  impounded,  IIL,  178. 

Water  tower,  IIL,  181. 

W 

Walker,  T.  A.,  L,  83. 
WARSHIPS: 

Battleships : 

Dreadnought,  L,  387,  388  ;  IL,  175. 
Kirig  Edward  VII.,  L,  389. 
Cbuisers  : 

Indomitable,  I.,  392,  394. 
Clearing  decks,  I.,  443,  444. 
Conning  tower,  I.,  446. 
Engine  room,  L,  445. 
Submarines  : 

Bl,  conning  tower,  etc.,  I.,  429. 
B4,  cruising,  I.,  429. 
Flotilla  at  Gosport,  L,  426. 
Karp  awash,  I.,  427. 
Launch  of  a  submarine,  I.,  432. 
Sectional  view  of,  I.,  428. 
Torpedo  craft : 
Dragonfly,  11. ,  43. 
Nembo,  sections  of,  I.,  419. 
Speed  and  power,  I.,  421. 
Suggested  French,  I.,  417. 
Tartar,  I.,  420. 
Viper,  I.,  424. 
Warships  of  the  future,  I.,  453-455. 
Water  cisterns  on  Trans-Caspian  Rail- 
way, II. ,  378. 
Water  mains,  at  Staines,  IIL,  199  ;  40- 
inch,  208. 
Weir,  waste,   of   Lake  Fife,   IIL,   237; 

shutters,  hydraulic,  235. 
Well-sinking  (see  "  Artesian  Wells  ") : 
Baku  oil  wells,  II. ,  326-329. 
Roumanian  dug  wells,  II. ,  325. 
Winchester  Cathedral,  IIL,  312  ;   under- 
pinning, 313. 
Winnipeg,  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  sid- 
ings at,  I.,  284. 
Wireless  telegraphy — cabin  on  warship, 
L,  450;  station  at  Poldhu,  IL,  438, 
439. 


THE    END 


TA  Williams,  Archibald 

15        Engineering  wonders  of  the 

W$  world 

V.3 


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